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11. For who would not see what the apostle meant to say, and how
wisely he has said it, in the following passage: "We glory in
tribulations also: knowing that tribulation worketh patience; and
patience, experience; and experience, hope: and hope maketh not
ashamed; because the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts by the
Holy Ghost which is given unto us"? Now were any man unlearnedly
learned (if I may use the expression) to contend that the apostle had
here followed the rules of rhetoric, would not every Christian,
learned or unlearned, laugh at him? And yet here we find the figure
which is called in Greek klimaz (climax,) and by some in Latin
gradatio, for they do not care to call it scala (a ladder), when the
words and ideas have a connection of dependency the one upon the other,
as we see here that patience arises out of tribulation, experience out
of patience, and hope out of experience. Another ornament, too, is
found here; for after certain statements finished in a single tone of
voice, which we call clauses and sections (membra et caesa), but the
Greeks kpla and kommata, there follows a rounded sentence (ambitus
sive circuitus) which the Greeks call periodos, the clauses of which
are suspended on the voice of the speaker till the whole is completed by
the last clause For of the statements which precede the period this is
the first clause, "knowing that tribulation worketh patience;" the
second, "and patience, experience;" the third, "and experience,
hope." Then the period which is subjoined is completed in three
clauses, of which the first is, "and hope maketh not ashamed;" the
second, "because the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts;" the
third, "by the Holy Ghost which is given unto us." But these and
other matters of the same kind are taught in the art of elocution. As
then I do not affirm that the apostle was guided by the rules of
eloquence, so I do not deny that his wisdom naturally produced, and
was accompanied by, eloquence.
12. In the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, again, he refutes
certain false apostles who had gone out from the Jews, and had been
trying to injure his character; and being compelled to speak of
himself, though he ascribes this as folly to himself, how wisely and
how eloquently he speaks! But wisdom is his guide, eloquence his
attendant; he follows the first, the second follows him, and yet he
does not spurn it when it comes after him. "I say again," he says,
"Let no man think me a fool: if otherwise, yet as a fool receive
me, that I may boast myself a little. That which I speak, I speak
it not after the Lord, but as it were foolishly, in this confidence
of boasting. Seeing that many glory after the flesh, I will glory
also. For ye suffer fools gladly, seeing ye yourselves are wise.
For ye suffer, if a man bring you into bondage, if a man devour you,
if a man take of you, if a man exalt himself, if a man smite you on
the face. I speak as concerning reproach, as though we had been
weak. Howbeit, whereinsoever any is bold (I speak foolishly), I
am bold also. Are they Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites?
so am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? so am I. Are they
ministers of Christ? (I speak as a fool), I am more: in labors
more abundant, in stripes above measure, in prisons more frequent, in
deaths off. Of the Jews five times received I forty stripes save
one, thrice was I beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice I
suffered shipwreck, a night and a day I have been in the deep; in
journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils of robbers, in
perils by mine own countrymen, in perils by the heathen, in perils in
the city, in perils in the wilderness, in perils in the sea, in
perils among false brethren; in weariness and painfulness, in
watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings often, in cold and
nakedness. Besides those things which are without, that which cometh
upon me daily, the care of all the churches. Who is weak, and I am
not weak? who is offended, and I burn not? If I must needs glory,
I will glory of the things which concern my infirmities." The
thoughtful and attentive perceive how much wisdom there is in these
words. And even a man sound asleep must notice what a stream of
eloquence flows through them.
13. Further still, the educated man observes that those sections
which the Greeks call kommata, and the clauses and periods of which I
spoke a short time ago, being intermingled in the most beautiful
variety, make up the whole form and features (so to speak) of that
diction by which even the unlearned are delighted and affected. For,
from the place where I commenced to quote, the passage consists of
periods: the first the smallest possible, consisting of two members;
for a period cannot have less than two members, though it may have
more: "I say again, let no man think me a fool." The next has
three members: "if otherwise, yet as a fool receive me, that I may
boast myself a little." The third has four members: "That which I
speak, I speak it not after the Lord, but as it were foolishly, in
this confidence of boasting." The fourth has two: "Seeing that
many glory after the flesh, I will glory also." And the fifth has
two: "For ye suffer fools gladly, seeing ye yourselves are wise."
The sixth again has two members: "for ye suffer, if a man bring you
into bondage." Then follow three sections (caesa): "if a man
devour you, if a man take of you, if a man exalt himself." Next
three clauses (membra): if "a man smite you on the face. I speak
as concerning reproach, as though we had been weak." Then is
subjoined a period of three members: "Howbeit, whereinsoever any is
bold (I speak foolishly), I am bold also." After this, certain
separate sections being put in the interrogatory form, separate
sections are also given as answers, three to three: "Are they
Hebrews? so am I. Are they Israelites? so am I. Are they the
seed of Abraham? so am I." But a fourth section being put likewise
in the interrogatory form, the answer is given not in another section
(caesum) but in a clause (membrum): "Are they the ministers of
Christ? (I speak as a fool.) I am more." Then the next four
sections are given continuously, the interrogatory form being most
elegantly suppressed: "in labors more abundant, in stripes above
measure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths oft." Next is
interposed a short period; for, by a suspension of the voice, "of
the Jews five times" is to be marked off as constituting one member,
to which is joined the second, "received I forty stripes save one."
Then he returns to sections, and three are set down: "Thrice was I
beaten with rods, once was I stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck."
Next comes a clause: "a night and a day I have been in the deep."
Next fourteen sections burst forth with a vehemence which is most
appropriate: "In journeyings often, in perils of waters, in perils
of robbers, in perils by mine own countrymen, in perils by the
heathen, in perils in the city, in perils in the wilderness, in
perils in the sea, in perils among false brethren, in weariness and
painfulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in fastings
often, in cold and nakedness." After this comes in a period of three
members: "Besides those things which are without, that which cometh
upon me daily, the care of all the churches." And to this he adds
two clauses in a tone of inquiry: "Who is weak, and I am not weak?
who is offended, and I burn not?" In fine, this whole passage, as
if panting for breath, winds up with a period of two members: "If I
must needs glory, I will glory of the things which concern mine
infirmities." And I cannot sufficiently express how beautiful and
delightful it is when after this outburst he rests himself, and gives
the hearer rest, by interposing a slight narrative. For he goes on to
say: "The God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, which is
blessed for evermore, knoweth that I lie not." And then he tells,
very briefly the danger he had been in, and the way he escaped it.
14. It would be tedious to pursue the matter further, or to point
out the same facts in regard to other passages of Holy Scripture.
Suppose i had taken the further trouble, at least in regard to the
passages I have quoted from the apostle's writings, to point out
figures of speech which are taught in the art of rhetoric? Is it not
more likely that serious men would think I had gone too far, than that
any of the studious would think I had done enough? All these things
when taught by masters are reckoned of great value; great prices are
paid for them, and the vendors puff them magniloquently. And I fear
lest I too should smack of that puffery while thus descanting on
matters of this kind. It was necessary, however, to reply to the
ill-taught men who think our authors contemptible; not because they do
not possess, but because they do not display, the eloquence which
these men value so highly.
15. But perhaps some one is thinking that I have selected the
Apostle Paul because he is our great orator. For when he says,
"Though I be rude in speech, yet not in knowledge, he seems to
speak as if granting so much to his detractors, not as confessing that
he recognized its truth. If he had said, "I am indeed rude in
speech, but not in knowledge," we could not in any way have put
another meaning upon it. He did not hesitate plainly to assert his
knowledge, because without it he could not have been the teacher of the
Gentiles. And certainly if we bring forward anything of his as a
model of eloquence, we take it from those epistles which even his very
detractors, who thought his bodily presence weak and his speech
contemptible, confessed to be weighty and powerful.
I see, then, that I must say something about the eloquence of the
prophets also, where many things are concealed under a metaphorical
style, which the more completely they seem buried under figures of
speech, give the greater pleasure when brought to light. In this
place, however, it is my duty to select a passage of such a kind that
I shall not be compelled to explain the matter, but only to commend
the style. And I shall do so, quoting principally from the book of
that prophet who says that he was a shepherd or herdsman, and was
called by God from that occupation, and sent to prophesy to the people
of God. I shall not, however, follow the Septuagint translators,
who, being themselves under the guidance of the Holy Spirit in their
translation, seem to have altered some passages with the view of
directing the reader's attention more particularly to the investigation
of the spiritual sense; (and hence some passages are more obscure,
because more figurative, in their translation;) but I shall follow
the translation made from the Hebrew into Latin by the presbyter
Jerome, a man thoroughly acquainted with both tongues.
16. When, then, this rustic, or quondam rustic prophet, was
denouncing the godless, the proud, the luxurious, and therefore the
most neglectful of brotherly love, he called aloud, saying: "Woe to
you who are at ease in Zion, and trust in the mountain of Samaria,
who are heads and chiefs of the people, entering with pomp into the
house of Israel! Pass ye unto Calneh, and see; and from thence go
ye to Hamath the great; then go down to Gath of the Philistines,
and to all the best kingdoms of these: is their border greater than
your border? Ye that are set apart for the day of evil, and that come
near to the seat of oppression; that lie upon beds of ivory, and
stretch yourselves upon couches that eat the lamb of the flock, and the
calves out of the midst of the herd; that chant to the sound of the
viol. They thought that they had instruments of music like David;
drinking wine in bowls, and anointing themselves with the costliest
ointment: and they were not grieved for the affliction of Joseph."
Suppose those men who, assuming to be themselves learned and
eloquent, despise our prophets as untaught and unskillful of speech,
had been obliged to deliver a message like this, and to men such as
these, would they have chosen to express themselves in any respect
differently those of them, at least, who would have shrunk from raving
like madmen?
17. For what is there that sober ears could wish changed in this
speech? In the first place, the invective itself; with what
vehemence it throws itself upon the drowsy senses to startle them into
wakefulness: "Woe to you who are at ease in Zion, and trust in the
mountains of Samaria, who are heads and chiefs of the people,
entering with pomp into the house of Israel!" Next, that he may use
the favors of God, who has bestowed upon them ample territory, to
show their ingratitude in trusting to the mountain of Samaria, where
idols were worshipped: "Pass ye unto Calneh," he says, "and
see; and from thence go ye to Hamath the great; then go down to Gath
of the Philistines, and to all the best kingdoms of these: is their
border greater than your border?" At the same time also that these
things are spoken of, the style is adorned with names of places as with
lamps, such as "Zion," "Samaria," "Calneh," "Hamath the
great," and "Gath of the Philistines." Then the words joined to
these places are most appropriately varied: "ye are at ease," "ye
trust," "pass on," "go," "descend."
18. And then the future captivity under an oppressive king is
announced as approaching, when it is added: "Ye that are set apart
for the day of evil, and come near to the seat of oppression." Then
are subjoined the evils of luxury: "ye that lie upon beds of ivory,
and stretch yourselves upon couches; that eat the lamb from the flock,
and the calves out of the midst of the herd." These six clauses form
three periods of two members each. For he does not say: Ye who are
set apart for the day of evil, who come near to the seat of
oppression, who sleep upon beds of ivory, who stretch yourselves upon
couches, who eat the lamb from the flock, and calves out of the
herd." If he had so expressed it, this would have had its beauty:
six separate clauses running on, the same pronoun being repeated each
time, and each clause finished by a single effort of the speaker's
voice. But it is more beautiful as it is, the clauses being joined in
pairs under the same pronoun, and forming three sentences, one
referring to the prophecy of the captivity: "Ye that are set apart
for the day of evil, and come near the seat of oppression;" the
second to lasciviousness: "ye that lie upon beds of ivory, and
stretch yourselves upon couches;" the third to gluttony: "who eat
the lamb from the flock, and the calves out of the midst of the
herd." So that it is at the discretion of the speaker whether he
finish each clause separately and make six altogether, or whether he
suspend his voice at the first, the third, and the fifth, and by
joining the second to the first, the fourth to the third, and the
sixth to the fifth, make three most elegant periods of two members
each: one describing the imminent catastrophe; another, the
lascivious couch; and the third, the luxurious table.
19. Next he reproaches them with their luxury in seeking pleasure
for the sense of hearing. And here, when he had said, "Ye who
chant to the sound of the viol," seeing that wise men may practise
music wisely, he, with wonderful skill of speech, checks the flow of
his invective, and not now speaking to, but of, these men, and to
show us that we must distinguish the music of the wise from the music of
the voluptuary, he does not say, "Ye who chant to the sound of the
viol, and think that ye have instruments of music like David;" but
he first addresses to themselves what it is right the voluptuaries
should hear, "Ye who chant to the sound of the viol;" and then,
turning to others, he intimates that these men have not even skill in
their art: "they thought that they had instruments of music like
David; drinking wine in bowls, and anointing themselves with the
costliest ointment." These three clauses are best pronounced when the
voice is suspended on the first two members of the period, and comes to
a pause on the third.
20. But now as to the sentence which follows all these: "and they
were not grieved for the affliction of Joseph." Whether this be
pronounced continuously as one clause, or whether with more elegance we
hold the words, "and they were not grieved," suspended on the
voice, and then add, "for the affliction of Joseph," so as to make
a period of two members; in any case, it is a touch of marvelous
beauty not to say," and they were not grieved for the affliction of
their brother;" but to put Joseph for brother, so as to indicate
brothers in general by the proper name of him who stands out illustrious
from among his brethren, both in regard to the injuries he suffered and
the good return he made. And, indeed, I do not know whether this
figure of speech, by which Joseph is put for brothers in general, is
one of those laid down in that art which I learnt and used to teach.
But how beautiful it is, and how it comes home to the intelligent
reader, it is useless to tell any one who does not himself feel it.
21. And a number of other points bearing on the laws of eloquence
could be found in this passage which I have chosen as an example. But
an intelligent reader will not be so much instructed by carefully
analysing it as kindled by reciting it with spirit. Nor was it
composed by man's art and care, but it flowed forth in wisdom and
eloquence from the Divine mind; wisdom not aiming at eloquence, yet
eloquence not shrinking from wisdom. For if, as certain very eloquent
and acute men have perceived and said, the rules which are laid down in
the art of oratory could not have been observed, and noted, and
reduced to system, if they had not first had their birth in the genius
of orators, is it wonderful that they should be found in the messengers
of Him who is the author of all genius? Therefore let us acknowledge
that the canonical writers are not only wise but eloquent also, with an
eloquence suited to a character and position like theirs.
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