FIRST ARTICLE: WHETHER GOOD CAN BE THE CAUSE OF EVIL

State of the question. In this title cause is understood in its most general sense, without any determination of the kind of cause.

It seems that good cannot be the cause of evil:

1. because "a good tree cannot bear evil fruit," as our Lord said;
2. because one contrary cannot be the cause of another contrary, for every agent acts in a manner similar to itself, that is, it acts in accord with its own determination;
3. because evil is a deficient effect; which can proceed only from a deficient cause as such, that is, from a cause that is not good but evil, for the cause that is deficient is evil;
4. finally, Dionysius declared, "evil does not have a cause."[1068]

But on the other hand, St. Augustine said: "There was absolutely nothing from which evil could arise except out of good."[1069]

Reply. The reply has four parts:

1. it is necessary to point out that every evil has some kind of cause;

2. evil has neither a formal nor a final cause;

3. evil has a material cause, namely, the good in which it is;

4. evil has an efficient cause "per accidens", which is some good. Thus good is the material cause and the accidental efficient cause of evil.

First conclusion. It is necessary to point out that evil has some kind of cause. In his proof St. Thomas enunciates first the minor; but we begin with the major as follows:

The fact that anything is deficient in its natural and due disposition can arise only from some cause that draws the thing outside its disposition; for example, an agent does not defect in its action except by reason of some impediment. But evil is the deficiency of some good that is due. Therefore evil has some kind of cause, and nothing can be a cause unless it is being and good in some way.

The major of this syllogism illustrates the entire article, as we shall see. Up to this point there is no difficulty, and the foregoing argument will appear even clearer at the end of the article when we distinguish between evil in action and evil in effect.

Second conclusion. Evil has neither a formal nor a final cause; this is evident because evil is the privation of form and the privation of the right ordination to an end.

The divine permission of evil takes place because of a greater good, but the evil itself is not useful nor is it of itself ordered to the greater good; if it were, it would be something good as matter ordered to the form. Evil, however, is only the occasion and the condition "sine qua non" of some greater good, as, for example, persecution is the occasion of the great constancy of the martyrs. A condition and an occasion differ from a cause inasmuch as they have no influence on the effect, neither efficiently nor finally nor formally nor materially.

Third conclusion. That evil has a material cause is evident because evil is privation in an apt subject, and thus it is in good as in a subject.

Fourth conclusion. This conclusion is more difficult. Evil cannot have an efficient cause "per se" but only an efficient cause "per accidens", and this is something good.

The proof is rather complex. The following synopsis may be helpful.

Obviously evil does not have an efficient cause "per se", for such a cause is in some way being and good, which "per se" produces some good, for example, fire produces fire and motor power produces movement.[1070] Hence evil can have an efficient cause only "per accidens". But accidental causes are of many kinds; likewise evil is of many kinds, and therefore this subdivision is necessary.

GOOD IS THE EFFICIENT CAUSE OF EVIL

not "per se"

for a cause "per se" is some being and some good, which "per se" produces something like itself, that is, something good; for example, fire produces fire, motive power produces motion

"per accidens"

in action, from the defect of the agent

principal: e.g., weakness in walking.

instrumental: lameness

in the effect

from the power of the agent "per se" producing an opposite form; thus the sun dries up some fruits

by defect

of the agent and the action: e.g., poor speech;

of the matter: e.g., a monstrosity.

1. Evil in action, for example, weakness in walking or lameness is caused by the defect of the principal cause (a weakness of the motive power) or by a defect of the instrumental cause (curvature of the leg bones).

2. Evil in anything is of three kinds: a) from the power of a contrary agent, for example, the form of wood or of a house is destroyed by the power of fire; b) from the defect of an action followed by a proper deficient effect, for example, poor hearing is the effect of poor pronunciation; c) from the indisposition of the matter, for example, the birth of a monstrosity.

This enumeration is complete because evil in a thing cannot be produced except by the agent or the matter as considered with regard to the form and the end. Thus the four kinds of causes are included. And evil cannot come from the agent except by reason of the power of a contrary agent or from the defect of the proper agent.

Finally it is clear that in these three cases the efficient cause is only an accidental cause, but the difficulty arises from the fact that causes are said to be accidental in different ways.

It is accidental that a proper agent be defective, for example, that a man speaks poorly because of the presence of some impediment. The deficiency happens to a good thing which "per se" has the power to act.

So also it is accidental that matter be indisposed to properly receive the action of an agent. Lastly it is only by accident that the privation of a form takes place, for example, the destruction of wood or of a house by the force of a contrary agent, namely, fire. Per se this contrary agent tends to induce its proper form; fire produces something similar to itself, it produces fire, and it does not "per se" tend to the privation of an opposite form. This privation, however, follows necessarily. It is true that this is not the first but the second acceptation of the term "accidental cause," as explained by Aristotle.[1071]

Aristotle divides accidental causes as follows.[1072]

The division of quasi- "per accidens" and not contingently will appear obscure to many. It is difficult at first to conceive of a contrary agent producing a physical evil "per accidens" and of necessity; the terms "per accidens" and "necessarily" seem to be irreconcilable to those who do not clearly understand the difference between a cause that is absolutely "per accidens", like chance, and an accidental cause that always produces the accidental effect. Such a cause is nevertheless a cause "per accidens" even though the accidental effect follows always and of necessity, because this cause is not "per se" ordered to this effect. Fire acts in a way similar to itself; "per se" it does not tend to the destruction of wood or of a house, but to the production of fire. The terms "per accidens" and "of necessity"," at first sight irreconcilable, can be reconciled.

Doubt. With regard to a voluntary agent, is the accidental effect separated from the intention of the agent?" Sometimes the accidental effect is connected with the principal effect rarely and in few instances, and in this case when the agent intends the effect "per se" it is not necessary that the agent intend the accidental effect. But sometimes the accidental effect accompanies the principal effect at all times or in the majority of instances, and then the accidental effect cannot be said to be separate from the intention of the agent. If therefore the good intended by the will is joined to some evil in rare instances, the will can be excused from sin, as in the case of accidental homicide which occurs beyond the intention of the will. But if at all times or in most instances the evil is joined to the good which the will intends "per se", it is not excused from sin, even though the will does not intend this evil "per se". Even though the sinner does not will the evil in itself, yet he wills to fall into this evil rather than go without the connected good."[1073]

3. Thus good is the material cause and "per accidens" the efficient cause of evil. For this reason we say, for instance, of a conflagration or of a fractured bone, it was an accident.

The conclusion of the body of the article will appear clearer in the light of this principle, "The fact that a thing is deficient in its natural and proper disposition can arise only from some cause that draws it away from that disposition."[1074]

The evil of an action arising from the defect of the agent and the evil in a thing arising from the defect of the agent or from the defect of the matter in the final analysis arise from some cause that draws the thing or the agent away from its disposition. This disturbing cause is a cause "per accidens" because "per se" it tends to its proper effect; for example, fruits are dried up owing to an excessive influence from the sun, and on the other hand fruits do not ripen from an insufficient influence from the sun. Physical evil, as Leibnitz says, happens because of the interconcurrence of the laws of nature. But each of these laws is good. The evil follows accidentally, and it is the condition of a greater good according to the disposition of Providence. And while we deplore these accidental evils, we unconsciously confess that the things that happen ordinarily are well ordered by divine Providence.