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The religious orders, like most other institutions of the age
preceding the Reformation, stood badly in need of re-organisation and
reform. Various causes had combined to bring about a relaxation of the
discipline prescribed by their holy founders, and to introduce a spirit
of worldliness, that boded ill both for the individual members as well
as for the success of the work for which these orders had been
established. The interference of outside authorities lay or
ecclesiastical in the appointment of superiors, the union of several
houses under one superior, the accumulation of wealth, the habitual
neglect of the superiors to make their visitations, and a general
carelessness in the selection and training of the candidates to be
admitted into the various institutions, were productive of disastrous
results. It is difficult, however, to arrive at a correct estimate
as to the extent of the evil, because the condition of affairs varied
very much in the different religious orders and in the different
provinces and houses of the same order. At all times a large
proportion of the religious of both sexes recognised and deplored the
spirit of laxity that had crept in, and laboured strenuously for a
return to the old ideals long before the Lutheran campaign had made it
necessary to choose between reform and suppression.
The Benedictines, who had done excellent work for the promotion of
the spiritual and temporal welfare of the people amongst whom they
laboured, suffered more than any other body from the interference of
lay patrons in the appointment of abbots, as well as from the want of
any central authority capable of controlling individual houses and of
insisting upon the observance of the rules and constitution. Various
efforts were made, however, to introduce reforms during the sixteenth
century. In France the most important of these reforms was that begun
in the abbey of St. Vannes by the abbot, Didier de la Cour.
Recognising the sad condition of affairs he laboured incessantly to
bring about a return to the strict rule of St. Benedict. His
efforts were approved by Clement VIII in 1604. Many houses
in France having accepted the reform, it was resolved to unite them
into one congregation under the patronage of St. Maur, the disciple
of St. Benedict.[118] The new congregation of St. Maur was
sanctioned by Louis XIII and by Pope Gregory XV
(1621). The Maurists devoted themselves to the study of the
sacred sciences, more especially to history, liturgy and patrology,
and set an example of thorough scholarship which won for them the praise
of both friends and foes. The names of D'Achery, Mabillon,
Ruinart, Martene, Thierry, Lami and Bouquet are not likely to be
forgotten so long as such works as the "Amplissima Collectio Veterum
Scriptorum", "Thesaurus Anecdotorum", "Gallia Christiana",
"Histoire Litteraire de la France", "De Re Diplomatica",
"L'Art de verifier les dates", the "Receuil des historiens des
Gaules", etc., survive to testify to the labours and research of
the Congregation of St. Maur.[119]
The reform movement among the Dominicans had made itself manifest from
the days of Raymond of Capua (1390), who ordered that in every
province there should be at least one house where the rule of St.
Dominic might be observed in its original strictness. The success of
the reform varied in the different countries and even in the different
houses of the same province, but in the sixteenth century the general
tendency was undoubtedly upwards. The religious rebellion inflicted
serious losses on the order and led to the almost complete extinction of
provinces that once were flourishing; but the Spanish and Portuguese
discoveries in America and the spread of the missionary movement opened
up for the order new fields, where its members were destined to do
lasting service to religion and to win back in the New World more than
they had lost in the Old. Discipline among the Cistercians, too,
had become relaxed, but a general improvement set in which led to the
formation of new congregations, the principal of which were the
Congregation of the Feuillants approved by Sixtus V (1587),
and of the Trappists, which take their name from the monastery of La
Trappe and owe their origin to the zealous efforts of the Abbot de
Rance (1626-1700).
The Franciscans were divided already into the Observants and the
Conventuals, but even among the Observants the deteriorating
influence of the age had made itself felt. Matteo di Bassi set
himself in the convent of Monte Falco to procure a complete return to
the original rule of St. Francis, and proceeded to Rome to secure
the approbation of Clement VII. In 1528 by the Bull,
"Religionis Zelus" the Pope permitted himself and his followers to
separate from the Observants, to wear the hood ("cappuccio", hence
the name Capuchins[120]) which Matteo claimed to have been the dress
of St. Francis, to wear the beard, to found separate houses in
Italy, and to preach to the people. Soon the Capuchins spread
through Italy, and so popular did they become that Gregory XIII
withdrew the regulations by which they were forbidden to found separate
houses outside of Italy. The new order suffered many trials more
especially after the apostasy of its vicar- general Ochino in
1544, but with the blessing of God these difficulties were
overcome. The Capuchins rendered invaluable service to religion by
their simple straightforward style of preaching so opposed as it was to
the literary vapourings that passed for sermons at the time, by their
familiar intercourse with the poor whom they assisted in both spiritual
and temporal misfortunes, by their unswerving loyalty to the Pope and
by the work they accomplished on the foreign missions, more especially
in those lands which had once been the glory of the Church but where
religion had been extinguished almost completely by the domination of
the Saracen.
The revival was not confined, however, merely to a reform of the
older religious orders. The world had changed considerably since the
constitutions of these bodies had been formulated by their holy
founders. New conditions and new dangers necessitated the employment
of new weapons and new methods for the defence of religion.
Fortunately a band of zealous men were raised up by God to grapple
with the problems of the age, and to lay the foundation of religious
societies, many of which were destined to confer benefits on religion
hardly less permanent and less valuable than had been conferred in other
times by such distinguished servants of God as St. Benedict, St.
Dominic, and St. Francis of Assisi.
The Theatines, so called from Chieti (Theate) the diocese of
Peter Caraffa, had their origin in a little confraternity founded by
Gaetano di Tiene[121] a Venetian, who gathered around him a few
disciples, all of them like himself zealous for the spiritual
improvement of both clergy and people (1524). During a visit to
Rome Gaetano succeeded in eliciting the sympathy of Peter Caraffa
(then bishop of Theate and afterwards cardinal and Pope) and in
inducing him to become the first superior of the community. The
institution was approved by Clement VII in 1524. Its
founders aimed at introducing a higher standard of spiritual life
amongst both clergy and laity by means of preaching and by the
establishment of charitable institutions. The order spread rapidly in
Italy, where it did much to save the people from the influence of
Lutheranism, in Spain were it was assisted by Philip II, in
France where Cardinal Mazarin acted as its patron, and in the
foreign missions, especially in several parts of Asia, the Theatines
won many souls to God.
The Regular Clerics of St. Paul, better known as the Barnabites
from their connexion with the church of St. Barnabas at Milan, were
founded by Antony Maria Zaccaria[122] of Cremona, Bartholomew
Ferrari and Jacopo Morigia. Shocked by the low state of morals then
prevalent in so many Italian cities, these holy men gathered around
them a body of zealous young priests, who aimed at inducing the people
by means of sermons and instructions to take advantage of the sacrament
of Penance. The order was approved by Clement VII in 1533,
and received many important privileges from his successors. Its
members worked in complete harmony with the secular clergy and in
obedience to the commands of the bishops. They bound themselves not to
seek or accept any preferment or dignity unless at the express direction
of the Pope. In Milan they were beloved by St. Charles Borromeo
who availed himself freely of their services, and they were invited to
Annecy by St. Francis de Sales. Several houses of the Barnabites
were established in Italy, France, and Austria. In addition to
their work of preaching and instructing the people they established many
flourishing colleges, and at the request of the Pope undertook charge
of some of the foreign missions.
The founder of the Oblates was St. Charles Borromeo[123]
(1538-84) who was created cardinal by his uncle Pius IV,
at the age of twenty- three, and who during his comparatively short
life did more for the reform of the Church and for the overthrow of
Protestantism than any individual of his age. It was due mainly to
his exertions that the Council of Trent was re-convoked, and to his
prudent advice that it was carried to a successful conclusion. Once
the decrees of the Council had received the approval of the Pope St.
Charles spared no pains to see that they were put into execution not
only in his own diocese of Milan but throughout the entire Church.
For a long time personal government of his diocese was impossible as
his presence in Rome was insisted upon by the Pope; but as soon as he
could secure permission he hastened to Milan, where he repressed
abuses with a stern hand, introduced regular diocesan and provincial
synods, visited in person the most distant parts of the diocese, won
back thousands who had gone over to heresy in the valleys of
Switzerland, and defended vigorously the rights and the liberties of
the Church against the Spanish representatives. In all his reforms
he was supported loyally by the religious orders, more especially by
the Jesuits and the Barnabites, with whom he maintained at all times
the most friendly relations. At the same time he felt the need of a
community of secular priests, who while remaining under the authority
of the bishop would set an example of clerical perfection, and who
would be ready at the request of the bishop to volunteer for the work
that was deemed most pressing. he was particularly anxious that such a
body should undertake the direction of the diocesan seminary, and
should endeavour to send forth well educated and holy priests. With
these objects in view he established the Oblates in 1578, and the
community fully justified his highest expectations.
The Oratorians[124] were established by St. Philip Neri
(1515-95) the reformer and one of the patrons of Rome. He
was a native of Florence, who when still a young man turned his back
upon a promising career in the world in order to devote himself entirely
to the service of God. Before his ordination he laboured for fifteen
years visiting the sick in the hospitals, assisting the poorer
pilgrims, and instructing the young. He formed a special
confraternity, and gathered around him a body of disciples both cleric
and lay. After his ordination they were accustomed to hold their
conferences in a little room ("Oratorium", Oratory) over the
church of St. Girolmao. Here sermons and instructions were given on
all kinds of subjects, particularly on the Sacred Scriptures, the
writings of the Fathers, and the leading events in the history of the
Church. The society was approved by Gregory XIII (1575)
under the title of the Congregation of the Oratory. It was to be
composed of secular priests living together under a rule, but bound by
no special vows. St. Philip Neri was convinced that the style of
preaching in vogue at the time was responsible in great measure for the
decline of religion and morality. Being a man of sound education
himself he insisted that his companions should devote themselves to some
particular department of ecclesiastical knowledge, and should give the
people the fruits of their study. Baronius, for example, the author
of the celebrated "Annales Ecclesiastici", is said to have preached
for thirty years on the history of the Church. In this way St.
Philip provided both for sound scholarship and useful instruction.
Many branches of the Oratory were founded in Italy, Spain,
Portugal, and in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in South
America.
Recognising the need for an improvement in the education and lives of
the French clergy and mindful of the benefits conferred on Rome by the
community of St. Philip Neri, the Abbe, afterwards Cardinal,
Pierre de Berulle determined to found an Oratory in Paris.[125]
The Paris Oratorians were a community of secular priests bound by no
special vows, but living under a common rule with the object of
fulfilling as perfectly as possible the obligations they had undertaken
at their ordination. The project received the warm support of
Cardinal Richelieu and was approved by Paul V in 1613. At
the time clerical education in Paris and throughout France was in a
condition of almost hopeless confusion. The French Oratorians,
devoted as they were themselves to study, determined to organise
seminaries on the plan laid down by the Council of Trent, and to take
charge of the administration of such institutions. In philosophy the
Oratory produced scholars such as Malebranche, in theology Thomassin
and Morin, in Scripture Houbigant and Richard Simon, and in
sacred eloquence such distinguished preachers as Lajeune and
Massillon. The Oratorians survived the stormy days of the Jansenist
struggle though the peace of the community was disturbed at times by the
action of a few of its members, but it went down before the wild
onslaught of the Revolution. It was revived, however, by Pere
Gratry in 1852.
The Brothers of Charity were founded by a Portuguese,[126] who
having been converted by a sermon of St. John d'Avila, devoted
himself to the relief of human suffering in every form. On account of
his great charity and zeal for souls he received the surname, St.
John of God. He gathered around him a band of companions who
assisted him in caring for the sick in the hospital he had founded at
Granada. After his death in 1550 the work that he had begun was
carried on by his disciples, whose constitutions were approved by Pius
V in 1572. Soon through the generosity of Philip II and of
the Spanish nobles hospitals were established in various cities of
Spain, and placed under the control of the Brothers of St. John of
God. They were invited by the Pope to open a house in Rome, and
they went also to Paris on the invitation of the queen (1601).
At the time of the French Revolution they had charge of forty
hospitals, from all of which they were expelled. The founder was
canonised in 1690, and named as patron of hospitals by Leo
XIII in 1898.
The Piarists or Patres Piarum Scholarum were founded by St.
Joseph Calazansa[127] (1556-1648), who had been
vicar-general of the diocese of Urgel in Spain, an office which he
resigned in order to betake himself to Rome. Here he began to gather
the poorer children for instruction, and as the teachers were unwilling
to assist him unless they were given extra remuneration, he opened a
free school in Rome in 1597. The school was taught by himself and
two or three priests whom he had interested in the work. From these
unpretentious beginnings sprang the society of the Fathers of the
Pious Schools. The object of the society, which was composed of
priests, was the education of the young both in primary and secondary
schools. The society was approved by Paul V, and established
finally as a recognised institution by Gregory XV (1621).
It spread rapidly into Italy, Austria, and Poland. Somewhat akin
to the Piarists were the Fathers of Christian Doctrine, founded by
Caesar de Bus for the purpose of educating the young. The society
was composed of priests, and received the approval of Clement
VIII in 1597. Later on it united with the Somaschans, who
had been established by St. Jerome Aemilian with a similar purpose,
but on account of certain disputes that arose the two bodies were
separated in 1647.
The Brothers of the Christian Schools were founded by John Baptist
de la Salle[128] (1651-1719). The founder was a young
priest of great ability, who had read a distinguished course in arts
and theology before his ordination. Having been called upon to assist
in conducting a free school opened at Rheims in 1679 he threw
himself into the work with vigour, devoting nearly all his energies to
the instruction of the teachers. These he used to gather around him
after school hours to encourage them to their work, to suggest to them
better methods of imparting knowledge and generally to correct any
defects that he might have noticed during the course of his daily visits
to the schools. In this way he brought together a body of young men
interested in the education of the children of the poor, from which
body were developed the Brothers of the Christian Schools. At first
he intended that some of the congregation should be priests, but later
on he changed his mind, and made it a rule that none of the Brothers
should become priests, nor should any priest be accepted as a novice.
For a long time the holy founder was engaged in an uphill struggle
during which the very existence of the institute was imperilled.
Distrusted by some of the ecclesiastical authorities, attacked by
enemies on all side, deserted by a few of his own most trusted
disciples, a man of less zeal and determination would have abandoned
the project in despair. But de la Salle was not discouraged. He
composed a constitution for his followers, and in 1717 he held a
general chapter, in which he secured the election of a
superior-general. From this time the Institute of Christian
Brothers progressed by leaps and bounds. The holy founder of the
society was a pioneer in the work of primary education. In teaching,
in the grading of the pupils, and in constructing and furnishing the
schools new methods were followed; more liberty was given in the
selection of programmes to suit the districts in which schools were
opened; normal schools were established to train the young teachers for
their duties, and care was taken that religious and secular education
should go forward hand in hand. The society spread rapidly in
France, more especially after it had received the approval of Louis
XV, and had been recognised as a religious congregation by
Benedict XIII (1725). During the Revolution the society
was suppressed, and the Brothers of the Christian Schools suffered
much rather than prove disloyal to the Pope. In 1803 the
institute was re-organised, and since that time houses have been
opened in nearly every part of the world. John Baptist de la Salle
was canonised by Leo XIII in 1900.
The Congregation of the Priests of the Mission, better known as
Lazarists from the priory of St. Lazare which they occupied in
Paris, and as Vincentians from the name of their founder, St.
Vincent de Paul, was established in 1624. St. Vincent was
born at Pouy in Gascony in 1576, received his early education at
a Franciscan school, and completed his theological studies at the
University of Toulouse, where he was ordained in 1600. Four
years later the ship on which he journeyed from Marseilles having been
attacked by Barbary pirates, he was taken prisoner and brought to
Tunis, where he was sold as a slave. He succeeded in making his
escape from captivity (1607) by converting his master, a
Frenchman who had deserted his country and his religion. He went to
Rome, from which he was despatched on a mission to the French
Court, and was appointed almoner to queen Margaret of Valois.
Later on he became tutor to the family of the Count de Gondi, the
master of the French galleys. During his stay there St. Vincent
found time to preach to the peasants on the estate of his employer, and
to visit the prisoners condemned to the galleys. The splendid results
of his labours among these classes bore such striking testimony to the
success of his missions that St. Vincent was induced to found a
congregation of clergymen for this special work. Something of this
kind was required urgently in France at this period. The absence of
seminaries and the want of any properly organised system of clerical
education had produced their natural consequences on the clergy. In
the country districts particularly, the priests had neither the
knowledge nor the training that would enable them to discharge their
sacred functions. From this it followed that the people were not
instructed, and the sacraments were neglected.
By opening a house in Paris in 1624 St. Vincent took the first
practical step towards the foundation of a religious congregation, that
was destined to renew and to strengthen religion in France. Later on
the society received the sanction of the Archbishop of Paris,[129]
and of Louis XIII, and finally it was approved by Urban
VIII in the Bull, "Salvatoris Nostri", dated 12th
January 1632. In the same year St. Vincent took possession of
the priory of St. Lazare placed at his disposal by the canons regular
of St. Victor. The Congregation of the Mission was to be a
congregation of secular clergymen, bound by simple religious vows.
Its principal work, besides the sanctification of its own members,
was to give missions to the poor particularly in country districts, and
to promote a high standard of clerical life. The bishops of France
were delighted with the programme of the new congregation. Invitations
poured in from all sides on the disciples of St. Vincent asking them
to undertake missions, and wherever they went their labours were
attended with success. As a rule St. Vincent established a
confraternity of charity in the parishes that he visited to help the
poor and above all to look after the homeless orphans.[130]
It was not long until he discovered that, however successful his
missions might be, they could effect little permanent good unless the
priests in charge of the parishes were determined to continue the work
that had been begun, and to reap the harvest which the missioners had
planted. At that time there were no seminaries in France, so that
candidates for the priesthood were ordained on the completion of their
university course without any special training for their sacred office.
At the request of some of the bishops St. Vincent determined to give
retreats to those who were preparing for Holy Orders. At first these
retreats lasted only ten days, but they were productive of such
splendid results that they were extended to several months. Finally
they led to the establishment of clerical seminaries, of which
institutions St. Vincent and his associates took charge in several of
the dioceses of France. Before his death they had control of eleven
French seminaries; and at the time of the Revolution fully one-third
of the diocesan seminaries were in the hands of his disciples.[131]
By means of retreats for the clergy, and spiritual conferences
organised for their improvement St. Vincent kept in close touch with
those whom he had trained, and afforded them an opportunity of renewing
their fervour and completing their education.
It was fortunate for France that God had raised up a man so prudent
and zealous as St. Vincent to be a guide to both priests and people
during the difficult times through which the country was then passing.
From without, danger threatened the Church on the side of the
Huguenot heretics, and from within, Jansenism and Gallicanism bade
fair to captivate the sympathy of both clergy and people. At first
St. Vincent was on friendly terms with the Abbot de St. Cyran,
the leader of the Jansenists in France, but once he realised the
dangerous nature of his opinions and the errors contained in such
publications as the "Augustus" of Jansen and the "Frequent
Communion" of Arnauld he threw himself vigorously into the campaign
against Jansenism. At court, in his conferences with bishops and
priests, in university circles, and in the seminaries he exposed the
insidious character of its tenets. At Rome he urged the authorities
to have recourse to stern measures, and in France he strove hard to
procure acceptance of the Roman decisions. And yet in all his work
against the Jansenists there was nothing of the bitterness of the
controversialist. He could strike hard when he wished, but he never
forgot that charity is a much more effective weapon than violence. In
his own person he set the example of complete submission to the
authority of the Pope, and enjoined such submission on his
successors. St. Vincent died in 1660. His loss was mourned not
merely by his own spiritual children, the Congregation of the Mission
and the Sisters of Charity, but by the poor of Paris and of France
to whom he was a generous benefactor, as well as by the bishops and
clergy to whom he had been a friend and a guide. To his influence more
than to any other cause is due the preservation of France to the
Church in the seventeenth century.
But the work of the Congregation of the Mission was not confined to
France. Its disciples spread into Italy, Spain, Portugal,
Poland, Ireland, and England. They went as missionaries to
Northern Africa to labour among the Barbary pirates by whom St.
Vincent had been captured, to Madagascar, to some of the Portuguese
colonies in the East, to China, and to the territories of the
Sultan. At the Revolution most of their houses in France were
destroyed, and many of the Vincentians suffered martyrdom. When the
worst storms, however, had passed the congregation was re-established
in France, and its members laboured earnestly in the spirit of its
holy founder to recover much of what had been lost.
The founder of the Sulpicians was Jean Jacques Olier[132]
(1608-57) the friend and disciple of St. Vincent de Paul.
Impressed with the importance of securing a good education and training
for the clergy, he and a couple of companions retired to a house in
Vaugirard (1641), where they were joined by a few seminarists,
who desired to place themselves under his direction. Later on he was
offered the parish of St. Sulpice, then one of the worst parishes in
Paris from the point of view of religion and morality. The little
community of priests working under the rules compiled by Olier for
their guidance soon changed completely the face of the entire district.
House to house visitations were introduced; sermons suitable to the
needs of the people were given; catechism classes were established,
and in a very short time St. Sulpice became the model parish of the
capital.
In 1642 a little seminary was opened and rules were drawn up for
the direction of the students, most of whom attended the theological
lectures at the Sorbonne. Priests and students formed one community,
and as far as possible followed the same daily routine. During their
free time the students assisted in the work of the parish by visiting
the sick and taking charge of classes for catechism. At first Olier
had no intention of founding seminaries throughout France. His aim
was rather to make St. Sulpice a national seminary, from which young
priests might go forth properly equipped, and qualified to found
diocesan institutions on similar lines if their superiors favoured such
an undertaking. But yielding to the earnest solicitations of several
of the bishops he opened seminaries in several parts of France, and
entrusted their administration to members of his own community. The
first of these was founded at Nantes in 1648. During the lifetime
of the founder a few of the Sulpicians were despatched to Canada,
where they established themselves at Montreal, and laboured zealously
for the conversion of the natives. Like St. Vincent, the founder
of the Sulpicians worked incessantly against Jansenism, and impressed
upon his followers the duty of prompt obedience to the bishops and to
the Pope, lessons which they seem never to have forgotten. The
Sulpicians according to their constitution are a community of secular
priests bound by no special religious vows.
The religious order, however, that did most to stem the advancing
tide of heresy and to raise the drooping spirits of the Catholic body
during the saddest days of the sixteenth century was undoubtedly the
Society of Jesus, founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola.[133] By
birth St. Ignatius was a Spaniard, and by profession he was a
soldier. Having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna in 1521 he
turned his mind during the period of his convalescence to the study of
spiritual books, more particularly the Lives of the Saints. As he
read of the struggles some of these men had sustained and of the
victories they had achieved he realised that martial fame was but a
shadow in comparison with the glory of the saints, and he determined to
desert the army of Spain to enrol himself among the servants of
Christ. With the overthrow of the Moorish kingdom of Granada fresh
in his mind, it is not strange that he should have dreamt of the still
greater triumph that might be secured by attacking the Mahomedans in
the very seat of their power, and by inducing them to abandon the law
of the Prophet for the Gospel of the Christians. With the intention
of preparing himself for this work he bade good-bye to his friends and
the associations of his youth, and betook himself to a lonely retreat
at Manresa near Montserrat, where he gave himself up to meditation
and prayer under the direction of a Benedictine monk. The result of
his stay at Manresa and of his communings with God are to be seen in
the "Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius", a work which in the
hands of his disciples has done wonders for the conversion and
perfection of souls, and which in the opinion of those competent to
judge has no serious rivals except the Bible and the Imitation of
Christ. From Manresa he journeyed to the Holy Land to visit its
sacred shrines, and to labour for the conversion of the Infidel
conquerors, but having found it impossible to undertake this work at
the time he returned to Europe.
Realising that his defective education was a serious obstacle to the
establishment of the religious order that he contemplated, he went to
work with a will to acquire the rudiments of grammar. When this had
been accomplished successfully he pursued his higher studies at
Alcala, Salamanca, and Paris, where he graduated as a doctor in
1534. But while earnest in the pursuit of knowledge he never
forgot that knowledge was but a means of preparing himself for the
accomplishment of the mission to which God had called him. While at
Paris he gathered around him a group of students, Francis Xavier,
Lainez, Salmeron, Bodadilla, Rodriguez and Faber, with which
body Lejay, Codure and Broet were associated at a later period. On
the feast of the Assumption (1534) Ignatius and his companions
wended their way to the summit of Montmartre overlooking the city of
Paris, where having received Holy Communion they pledged themselves
to labour in the Holy Land. Having discovered that this project was
almost impossible they determined to place themselves at the disposal of
the Pope. In Rome Ignatius explained the objects and rules of the
proposed society to Paul III and his advisers. In September
1540 the approval of the Pope was obtained though with certain
restrictions, which were abolished in 1543, and in the following
year Ignatius was elected first general of the Society of Jesus.
St. Ignatius had the greatest respect for the older religious
orders, the Benedictines, the Dominicans, and the Franciscans, to
all of which he was deeply indebted; but he believed that the new
conditions under which his followers would be called upon to do battle
for Christ necessitated new rules and a new constitution. The
Society of Jesus was not to be a contemplative order seeking only the
salvation of its own members. Its energies were not to be confined to
any particular channel. No extraordinary fasts or austerities were
imposed, nor was the solemn chanting of the office or the use of a
particular dress insisted upon. The society was to work "for the
greater glory of God" in whatever way the circumstances demanded. On
one thing only did St. Ignatius lay peculiar emphasis, and that was
the absolute necessity of obedience to superiors in all things lawful,
and above all of obedience to the Pope. The wisdom of this injunction
is evident enough at all times, but particularly in an age when
religious authority, even that of the successor of St. Peter, was
being called in question by so many. Members of the society were
forbidden to seek or accept any ecclesiastical dignities or
preferments.
The constitution[134] of the Society of Jesus was not drawn up
with undue haste. St. Ignatius laid down rules for his followers,
but it was only when the value of these regulations had been tested by
practice that he embodied them in the constitution, endorsed by the
first general congregation held in 1558. According to the
constitution complete administrative authority is vested in the
general, who is elected by a general congregation, and holds office
for life. He is assisted by a council consisting of a representative
from each province. The provincials, rectors of colleges, heads of
professed houses, and masters of notices are appointed by the general,
usually, however, only for a definite number of years, while all
minor officials are appointed by the provincial. The novitiate lasts
for two years during which time candidates for admission to the order
are engaged almost entirely in prayer, meditation, and spiritual
reading. When the novitiate has been completed the scholasticate
begins. Students are obliged to read a course in arts and philosophy
and to teach in some of the colleges of the society, after which they
proceed to the study of theology. When the theological course has been
ended they are admitted as coadjutors or professed members according to
their ability and conduct. Between these two bodies, the coadjutors
and the professed, there is very little difference, except that the
professed in addition to the ordinary vows pledge themselves to go
wherever the Pope may send them, and besides, it is from this body as
a rule that the higher officials of the order are selected. Lay
brothers are also attached to the society.
When the Society of Jesus was founded, Protestantism had already
made great strides in Northern Europe, and though the Latin
countries were not then affected no man could foresee what change a
decade of years might bring. St. Ignatius adopted the best
precautions against the spread of heresy. While he himself remained in
Rome engaged in organising the members of his society and in
establishing colleges and charitable institutions, he sent his
followers to all parts of Italy. Bishops availed themselves freely of
their services as preachers and teachers. Colleges were opened in
Venice, Naples, Bologna, Florence, and in many other leading
cities. St. Charles Borromeo became the patron and defender of the
society in Milan. Everywhere the labours of the Jesuits led to a
great religious revival, while by means of their colleges they
strengthened the faith of the rising generation. In Spain, too, the
home of St. Ignatius the Jesuits received a friendly welcome.
Their colleges were crowded with students, as were their churches with
the faithful. Difficulties, indeed, arose owing to the tendency of
some of the Spanish Jesuits to have none but Spanish superiors, but
with a little prudence these difficulties were overcome in 1593.
Most of the best known writers on ecclesiastical subjects, Vasquez,
Suarez, De Lugo, and Ripalda on Dogmatic Theology, Sanchez on
Moral Theology, and Maldonatus and Pereira on Scripture belonged
to the Spanish province.
In France the society met with serious difficulties at first. Hatred
of Spain and of everything that savoured of Spanish origin, dislike
of what was considered the excessive loyalty of the society to the
Pope, and jealousy on the part of the University of Paris were the
principal obstacles that were to be overcome. But notwithstanding
these the Jesuits found a home in Paris, where they opened the
College de Clermont (Louis-le-Grand), and they founded similar
colleges in several of the leading cities of France. In the struggle
against the Calvinists they were of great assistance to the Catholic
body. The progress of their numerous colleges and the influence which
they acquired over the young men roused the fierce opposition of the
University, but being befriended by the court, where they were
retained as royal confessors, the Jesuits were enabled to hold their
ground. During the wars of the League against Henry III and
Henry of Navarre, though their position was one of extreme delicacy,
the prudent action of their general, Aquaviva, in recommending his
subjects to respect the consciences of both parties saved the
situation. They were, however, expelled from Paris in 1594,
but Henry IV allowed them to return in 1603.
In the German States, Hungary, and Poland, where the fate of
Catholicity seemed trembling in the balance, the Jesuit Fathers
stayed what threatened to be a triumphal progress for Protestantism.
St. Ignatius soon despatched some of his disciples to the scene of
conflict under the leadership of the Blessed Peter Canisius.[135]
By his sermons, his lectures as professor, his prudent suggestions to
those in authority, as well as by his controversial writings, and more
particularly his celebrated Catechism, Canisius did more to stay the
advance of Protestantism in Germany than any single individual of his
age. Colleges were founded in Vienna, Ingoldstadt, Treves,
Mainz, and in most of the cities of Germany that were not subject to
the Protestant princes. From these colleges went forth young men who
were determined to resist the further encroachments of heresy.
Maximilian of Bavaria and the Emperor Ferdinand II, both of
whom took such a prominent part in the Catholic
Counter-Reformation, were pupils of the Jesuits, and were but
types of the men who left their colleges. In Hungary, too, and in
Poland the tide was turned in favour of the Catholic Church mainly by
the exertions of the Jesuits. In Ireland, England and Scotland,
in the Netherlands, and Sweden, in a word wherever Catholic
interests were endangered, the Jesuits risked their lives in defence
of the Catholic religion. It is on account of the defeats that they
inflicted on heresy at this period that the hatred of the Jesuits is so
deep-rooted and so universal amongst Protestants even to the present
day.
The Ursulines, so called from their patron St. Ursula, began as a
religious association of pious ladies formed by Angela de'
Merici[136] (Angela of Brescia) in 1537. At first the aim
of the association was to reclaim fallen women, to visit the sick, and
to educate the young. The members lived in their own homes according
to a scheme of life drawn up for their guidance, meeting only for
certain spiritual exercises. In 1535 the foundress succeeded in
bringing a few of them together into a small community. After her
death in 1540 the community increased in numbers, and was approved
by Paul III, who allowed the Ursulines to change their rules
according to circumstances. For a long time the Ursulines did not
spread outside Brescia, but as their work became known, particularly
their work as educationalists, they were invited to other parts of
Italy. In Milan they had a warm friend in the person of its
Cardinal Archbishop, St. Charles Borromeo. The first community
of the Ursulines was formed in France by Madame de Beuve. A rule
was drawn up by Father Gonterey, S.J., and others of his
society, and approved by Paul V (1612). In a comparatively
short time the Ursulines spread over most of the Catholic countries of
Europe, so that nearly all the most modern and best equipped schools
for Catholic girls were in their hands. In 1639 they went to
Canada where they opened the convent known as the Hotel-Dieu at
Quebec, and in 1727 they settled in New Orleans.
St. Teresa[137] (1515-82) is the reformer rather than the
foundress of the Carmelite nuns. Being anxious from an early age to
follow her religious vocation, much against the wishes of her father
she entered the convent of the Carmelite nuns at Avila (1535).
After her profession she fell ill, and for years was subject to
excruciating torture. During this period she turned her mind
completely to spiritual subjects, and was visited by God with most
extraordinary marks of divine favour, an account of which is to be
found in her life written by herself, in her "Relations", and in
many other of her works. She determined to return to the primitive
austerity of the Carmelite rule, and in 1562 she founded the first
convent of Discalced Carmelite nuns at Avila. Through her exertions
other convents of the order adopted the reform, and in 1580 the
existence of the Discalced Carmelites as a separate order was
approved. She died in 1582, and forty years later she was
canonised by Gregory XV.
The Sisters of the Visitation were established by St. Francis de
Sales[138] and St. Frances de Chantal.[139] St. Francis
de Sales (1567- 1622), so called from the castle of Sales
in Savoy at which he was born, made his rhetoric and philosophical
studies at Paris under the Jesuits. From Paris he went to Padua
for law, and having received his diploma he returned to his native
country, where his father had secured for him a place as senator and
had arranged a very desirable marriage. But St. Francis, feeling
that he had been called by God to another sphere of life, threw up his
position at the bar, accepted the office of provost of the chapter of
Geneva, and received Holy Orders (1593). A great part of the
diocese of Geneva was at this time overrun by the heretics. St.
Francis threw himself with ardour into the work of converting those who
had fallen away especially in the district of Le Chablais, where he
won over thousands to the faith. He became coadjutor-bishop of
Geneva, and on the death of his friend Claude de Granier he was
appointed to the See (1602). In conjunction with Madam de
Chantal he established a community of women at Annecy in 1610.
His idea at first was that the little community should not be bound by
the enclosure, but should devote themselves to their own sanctification
and to the visitation of the sick and the poor. Objections, however,
having been raised against such an innovation, he drew up for the
community a rule based mainly on the rule of St. Augustine. In
1618 the society received recognition as a religious order under the
title of the Order of the Visitation of the Blessed Virgin. The
order undertook the work of educating young girls as well as of visiting
the sick. It spread rapidly in Italy, France, Germany, Poland,
and later on in the United States.
The Sisters of Charity,[140] or the Grey Sisters as they were
called, were founded by St. Vincent de Paul. While St. Vincent
was cure of Chatillon-les-Dombes he established in the parish a
confraternity of charitable ladies for the care of the sick, the poor,
and the orphans. The experiment was so successful that he founded
similar confraternities in Paris, and wherever he gave missions
throughout the country. Having found, however, that in Paris the
ladies of charity were accustomed to entrust the work to their servants
he brought a number of young girls from the country, who could be
relied upon to carry out his wishes. These he looked after with a
special solicitude, and in 1633 Madam Le Gras took a house in
Paris, where she brought together a few of the most promising of them
to form a little community. In 1642 after the community had moved
into a house opposite St. Lazare, some of the sisters were allowed
to take vows. The Sisters of Charity have been at all times
exceedingly popular in France. By their schools, their orphanages,
their hospitals, and by their kindness to the poor and the suffering
they won for themselves a place in the hearts of the French people.
For a while during the worst days of the Revolution their work was
suspended, and their communities were disbanded; but their suppression
was deplored so generally that in 1801 the Superioress was
commanded to re-organise the society. Outside France the Sisters of
Charity had several houses in Poland, Switzerland, Spain, and
Germany.
Mary Ward[141] (1585-1645) was born of a good Catholic
family in England. She joined the Poor Clares at St. Omer in
1600, but, preferring an active to a contemplative life, she
gathered around her a few companions, and formed a little community at
St. Omer mainly for the work of education. According to her plan,
which was derived in great measure from the constitution of the Society
of Jesus (hence the name Jesuitesses given to her followers by her
opponents), her sisters were not bound by the enclosure, were not to
wear any distinctive dress, and were to be subject directly only to
Rome. Serious objections were raised immediately against such an
institute, particularly as Pius V had declared expressly that the
enclosure and solemn vows were essential conditions for the recognition
of religious communities of women. Branches were opened in the
Netherlands, Austria, and Italy under the patronage of the highest
civil authorities. As the opponents of the community continued their
attacks the foundress was summoned to Rome to make her defence
(1629), but in the following year the decree of suppression was
issued. The house in Munich was allowed to continue, and at the
advice of the Pope she opened a house in Rome. The principal change
introduced was that the houses should be subject to the bishops of the
dioceses in which they were situated. At last in 1703, on the
petition of Maximilian Emanuel of Bavaria and of Mary the wife of
James II, the rule was approved formally by Clement XI. The
society continued to spread especially in Bavaria. The followers of
Mary Ward are designated variously, the Institute of Mary,
Englische Fraulein, and Loreto Nuns from the name given to
Rathfarnham, the mother-house of the Irish branch, founded by
Frances Ball in 1821.
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