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In the latter half of the fifteenth and the first quarter of the
sixteenth centuries theological studies had reached a very low ebb.
The great philosophico-theological movement of the thirteenth century
had spent its force, and it seemed highly probable that in the struggle
with Humanism theology would be obliged to abandon its position of
pre-eminence in favour of the classics. Yet as events showed the
results of Humanism were far from being so harmful to theology as
seemed likely at first. Zeal for the pagan authors of antiquity helped
to stir up zeal for the writings of the Fathers, new editions of which
were published in various centres; while at the same time the value of
the spirit of historical and literary criticism, so highly prized by
the devotees of Humanism, was recognised by theologians, and availed
of largely in defending the authority of the documents that they cited.
In the controversies with the Reformers, who rejected entirely the
authority and the methods of the Scholastics, Catholic authors and
controversialists were obliged to fix their attention upon the
Scriptures and on the historical side of theology as evidenced in the
doctrines and usages of the early centuries. The revival, too, at
this period of the older religious orders, particularly the
Benedictines and the Dominicans, and the establishment of new bodies
such as the Jesuits and the Oratorians were in the highest degree
providential. It gave to the Church the services of trained and
devoted scholars, who were free to devote all their energies to the
defence of Catholic interests. In the remarkable theological movement
of the sixteenth century Spain and Italy held the leading place. The
University of Salamanca contended with the "Collegium Romanum" for
the supremacy once yielded freely to the theological faculty of Paris.
The founder of the new school of theology, which had its seat in
Salamanca but which exercised a very considerable influence on the
Jesuit teachers in Rome, Ingolstadt, and Prague, was the
Dominican, Francis of Vittoria (1480-1546). Realising
the necessities of the age better than most of his contemporaries he put
to an end the useless discussions and degenerate style of his immediate
predecessors, re-introduced the "Summa" of St. Thomas, insisted
on supplementing it by a close study of the Scriptures and the writings
of the Fathers, and inaugurated a new style of theological Latinity
freed both from the barbarisms of the later Scholastics and the
pedantry of the classical enthusiasts.
Amongst the Catholic theologians of Germany who defended the Church
against the attacks of the Reformers may be mentioned "John Eck"
(1486-1543) connected for the greater part of his life with
the University of Ingolstadt, who in his publications proved himself
the leading champion on the Catholic side against Luther; "John
Faber" (1478-1541) the friend of Erasmus and the staunch
though moderate opponent of Luther and Zwingli, whose work,
"Malleus Haereticorum" (1524), secured for him the title of
"the hammer of heretics"; "John Cochlaeus" (1479-1552)
who published more than two hundred treatises against the Reformers,
nearly all of which suffered from the haste and temper in which they
were prepared; "John Gropper" (1503-59) whose early
training as a lawyer led him at first to favour proposed compromises
hardly compatible with Catholic doctrine, but who laboured earnestly
to save Cologne for the Catholic Church; "John Nas" (1534-
90) the Franciscan Bishop of Brixen, and the "Blessed Peter
Canisius, S.J." (1521-97) who did more than any other
man to save the entire German nation from falling under the sway of
Lutheranism, thereby meriting the title of the second apostle of
Germany.
"Tommaso de Vio" (1469-1534), surnamed
"Cajetan"[169] from his place of birth, "Gaeta", joined the
Dominicans at an early age, taught at Padua and Pavia, and was
elected general of his order (1508). Seven years later he was
created cardinal and was entrusted with a mission to Germany
(1518), in the course of which he sought vainly to procure the
submission of Luther. During the closing years of his life he acted
as one of the principal advisers of Clement VII. By his example
and his advice he did much to revive theological studies amongst the
Dominicans and to recall them to the study of St. Thomas. As a
theologian and an exegetist he showed himself to be a man of great
ability and judgment sometimes slightly erratic and novel in his
theories, while from the point of view of style he was vastly superior
to most of his predecessors. His principal works are the Commentary
on St. Thomas (1507-22) and his explanations of nearly all
the books of the Old and New Testament. "Ambrosius
Catharinus"[170] (1487-1553) was born at Siena,
graduated a doctor of canon and civil law at the age of sixteen,
pleaded as a lawyer in the consistorial court of Leo X, joined the
Dominicans at an advanced age, took a prominent part in the
discussions at the earlier sessions of the Council of Trent, was
appointed bishop in 1546, and died in 1553 when, as it is
said, he was on the point of receiving the cardinal's hat.
Catharinus was a keen controversialist, but as a theologian he was
brilliant rather than solid. His strong leaning towards novelties
brought him into conflict with Cajetan and in fact with the whole
Dominican Order, the most cherished opinions of which he loved to
attack. "Dominic Soto" (1494- 1560) was a student of
Alcala and Paris, joined the Dominicans in 1524, taught
theology at Salamanca from 1532 till 1545, when he went to the
Council of Trent, where his services were invaluable especially on
the question of Grace and Justification, acted for a time as
confessor to Charles V, and returned finally to his chair at
Salamanca. He was the last of the great commentators on the
"Sentences" of Peter Lombard. His principal works were "De
Natura et Gratia", written for the information of the Fathers of
Trent and "De Justitia et Jure" (1556). Another of the
distinguished Spanish Dominicans of this period was "Melchior
Cano" (1509-60), who had as his professor at Salamanca
Francis of Vittoria. He taught at Alcala and Salamanca,
accompanied Soto to the Council of Trent, was appointed bishop but
resigned almost immediately, and served for some time as provincial of
the Dominicans. His greatest work was the "De Locis Theologicis"
(1563), in which as a kind of introduction to theology he
endeavoured to establish scientifically the foundations of theological
science. He discusses the ten "loci" or sources which he
enumerates, namely, Scripture, Tradition, the Catholic Church,
the Councils, the Fathers, the Roman Church, the Scholastics,
Reason, the authority of philosophers, and the authority of
historians. His style is simple, concise, and elegant.
"Robert Bellarmine"[171] (1542-1621) was born in
Tuscany, joined the Society of Jesus (1560), studied at the
"Collegium Romanum" and at Louvain, where he taught for some
time, was recalled to Rome to assume charge of the new chair of
controversy in the "Collegium Romanum", took a prominent part in
the preparation of the Clementine edition of the Vulgate, in the
"Congregatio de Auxiliis", and in the trial of Galileo, engaged
in controversy with James I of England in regard to the Catholic
Oath, was created cardinal (1599), and appointed Archbishop of
Capua (1602). Cardinal Bellarmine was a deeply religious man,
severe only with himself, an indefatigable student always anxious to be
just to his opponents, and specially gifted as a lecturer and writer.
His greatest work was undoubtedly the "Disputationes de controversis
Christianae fidei articulis", in which he displayed a most minute and
accurate knowledge of the religious tenets of all the sects of the
Reformers. The book created such an enormous sensation in Europe at
the time that special lecturers were employed at some of the Protestant
universities to undertake its refutation. His commentary on the
Psalms, and the Catechism prepared by him at the request of Clement
VIII also deserve special notice. The last complete edition of
his writings was published at Paris in 1870. "Francis
Suarez"[172] (1548-1617) was born at Granada, joined the
Society of Jesus in Salamanca (1564) and taught at
Valladolid, Rome, Alcala, Salamanca, and Coimbra. Like
Bellarmine Suarez was a man of great personal piety, well versed in
the writings of the Fathers and in the literature of the Reformers.
His works are clear and well arranged but somewhat too diffuse. The
last edition (Vives) of his works was published at Paris
(1856-61). "John de Lugo" (1583-1660) was born
at Madrid, went to Salamanca to study law, and there joined the
Jesuits. He lectured first at Valladolid, and later on at Rome
where he attracted crowds of students, and he was created cardinal in
1643. In his works he has covered practically the entire field of
dogmatic and moral theology. The best known are perhaps "De
Justitia et Jure" and his treatises on the Incarnation, the
Sacraments, the Eucharist, and the Sacrifice of the Mass. The
last edition of his published works was issued at Paris
(1868-9). "Dionysius Petavius"[173] (Petau,
1583-1652) was born at Orleans, studied arts and theology at
Paris, entered the Society of Jesus (1605), and taught
theology at Paris for twenty-two years. He was one of the best known
and most respected scholars of his age. Quite apart from his merits as
a theologian, his works on chronology, notably the "De doctrina
temporum" and the "Tabulae Chronologicae" would have been
sufficient to place him in the first rank of the scholars of his
period. In theology he is chiefly remarkable for the introduction and
application of the historical method in his discussion of dogma, and
hence he is referred to rightly as the "Father of the History of
Dogma." His principal theological work is the "Dogmata
Theologica" (1644-50).
The splendid example of a scientific treatment of moral theology set by
St. Thomas produced very little effect during the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, for the simple reason that the "Sentences",
and not the "Summa", was the text-book used generally in the
schools. Following along the lines marked out by Raymond of Penafort
in his "Summa de poenitentia et matrimonio" (1235) a large
number of "Summae" or manuals for the use of confessors were
published during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the last of
them being that of Silvester Prierias, one of the earliest opponents
of Luther. One of the few writers of this period who undertook to
give a scientific explanation of moral principles is St. Antoninus
(1389-1459), the Dominican Archbishop of Florence, in
his "Summa Theologica Moralis".
The rejection of the "Sentences" in favour of the "Summa", and
the reform decrees of the Council of Trent gave a new impetus to the
study of moral theology during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Most of the great writers of this period, Gregory of Valencia
(1550-1603), Vasquez (1549-1604), Lessius
(1554-1623), Banez (1528-1604), Medina
(1527-81), Sanchez (1550-1610), Saurez, and De
Logo devoted special attention to the underlying principles of moral
theology, and in some cases to their practical application. The "De
Poenitentia" and the "Responsa Moralia" of De Lugo served as
models of what might be called mixed treatment, partly scientific and
partly casuistical. The "Theologia Moralis" of the Jesuit
writer, Paul Laymann (1574-1635), the "Instructio
Sacerdotum" of Cardinal Toledo and the "Medulla Theologiae
Moralis" of Hermann Busenbaum (1600-68), which went
through forty editions in his own lifetime, may be cited as examples of
this method.
The controversy regarding Probabilism did not assume a serious aspect
till the rise and condemnation of Jansenism. During this period the
enemies of the Jesuits pointed to the approval given to Probabilism by
the Fathers of the Society as a proof of the laxity of view introduced
by Jesuit theologians. Whatever may be said of the system, one thing
is certain, namely, that the Jesuit theologians were not the first to
put it forward. It was followed in practice long before the
institution of the Society of Jesus, was enunciated clearly enough as
a theory by the Spanish Dominican Bartholomew Medina
(1527-81) and was adopted, at least in their solutions of
particular cases, by most of the great writers during the latter half
of the sixteenth and the first half of the seventeenth centuries.
Amongst the most notable writers on ascetical theology of this period
were St. Ignatius of Loyola, the author of the "Spiritual
Exercises", St. Teresa (1515-82) the zealous reformer of
the Carmelites, St. John of God (1495-1550) the founder
of the Brothers of St. John of God, the Dominican Louis of
Granada (1504-88), St. Francis de Sales (1567-
1622), the two Jesuit writers Alphonsus Rodriguez
(1526-1616) and Louis de Ponte (1554-1624), and
Jean Jacques Olier (1608-57) the founder of the
Sulpicians.
Many causes combined to bring about a great revival in Scriptural
studies. The Humanist movement ensured that commentators would bring
to their task a ready knowledge of Greek and a critical appreciation of
the age and value of manuscripts. The study of Hebrew was taken up
enthusiastically by scholars like Reuchlin, and was rendered
comparatively easy by the grammars and dictionaries published by
Reuchlin, Santez, Pagnino, Pelikan, and Cardinal Bellarmine.
The contention of the early Reformers that the Bible was the sole
source of divine revelation, though never accepted by Catholic
scholars, necessitated a close study of the words and literal meaning
of the sacred text. In opposition to the private interpretation of the
Reformers Catholics contended that the teaching authority of the
Church and the interpretation of the Fathers were the only sure
guides. The distinction between deutero-canonical and
proto-canonical books was ended for Catholics by the decision of the
Council of Trent attributing to both equal authority. The question
of the extent of inspiration was left by the Council of Trent
practically in the position in which it stood when the Council of
Florence defined that God was the author of the sacred books. Many
writers were inclined to hold the view that the divine assistance
extended to the style and the words, while others rejected verbal
inspiration. A few Catholic scholars, for example Lessius and
Hamel, seemed to maintain that a book composed by human industry and
without the assistance of the Holy Ghost might be regarded as inspired
if afterwards the Holy Ghost testified that it contained no error.
Since the Vatican Council such a view is no longer tenable.
The activity in the field of Scriptural studies is witnessed to by the
edition of the Greek and Latin text of the New Testament prepared by
Erasmus, by the Complutensian Polyglot published under the direction
of Cardinal Ximenes (1514-17) to be followed by similar
publications at Antwerp (1569-72) and at Paris
(1628-45), by the edition of the Septuagint at the command of
Sixtus V and the edition of the Vulgate under Clement VIII.
Amongst the great Catholic commentators of the age may be mentioned
Cardinal Cajetan (+1534), the Dominican Santez Pagnino
(+1541), Cornelius Jansen (1576), the Jesuit, John
Maldonatus (+1583), whose commentary on the four Gospels is
still unrivalled, William Estius (+1613), professor at
Douay, whose views on Grace were not unaffected by the controversies
then raging at Louvain, and Cornelius a Lapide, S.J.
(+1673), professor at Louvain and Rome, who published an
excellent commentary on the entire Scriptures.
Ecclesiastical History profited largely from the Humanist movement
which brought to light many new documents, and tended to awaken a
spirit of scholarly criticism. The contention put forward by the
Reformers, that primitive Christianity had been completely corrupted
by semi-Pagan novelties during the Middle Ages, made it imperative
on Catholic scholars to direct their attention to the practices and
teaching of the early centuries. New editions of the writings of the
Fathers were prepared by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and by the
Benedictines of St. Maur. The attempt made by the Magdeburg
Centuriators to justify Lutheranism at the bar of history called forth
the "Annales Ecclesiastici" of Cardinal Baronius
(1538-1607). These Annals dealt with the history of the
Church from the beginning till the year 1198. The work was
continued by the Oratorians Raynaldus and Laderchi, by de Sponde,
Bzovius and Augustine Theiner. The History of the Popes was
written by the Augustinian Panvinio (+1568) and by the
Dominican, Ciacconius (+1599). Hagiographical studies were
pursued by Surius (+1578) and by the Jesuit Heribert Rosweyde
(1569-1629). It was the latter who first conceived the plan
of publishing the Lives of the Saints in one series. He died without
having done much except to collect an immense mass of materials. The
scheme was, however, taken up by other members of the society,
notably, John Van Bolland (Bollandus, 1596-1665),
Godfrey Henschen (1601-81) and Daniel von Papenbroeck
(Papebroch, 1628-1714). These were the first of the
Bollandists, and the first volume of the "Acta Sanctorum" appeared
in 1643.
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