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Difficult as had been the situation with which the Popes were
confronted during the sixteenth century and the first half of the
seventeenth century, when heresy was rampant throughout Europe, and
when Catholic nations were obliged to fight for their very existence,
it was not a whit more difficult or more critical than that created by
the increasing and selfish demands of Catholic rulers, which
confronted their successors during the age of absolute government. The
Peace of Westphalia (1648), by giving official sanction to the
principle of state neutrality, meant nothing less than a complete
revolution in the relations that had existed hitherto between Church
and State. So long as the Christian world was united in one great
religious family, acknowledging the Pope as the common Father of
Christendom, it was not strange that in disputes between princes and
subjects or between the rulers of independent states the authority of
the Pope as supreme arbitrator should have been recognised, or that
his interference even in temporal matters should not have been regarded
as unwarrantable.
But once the religious unity of Europe was broken by the separation of
entire nations from the Church, and once the politico-religious
constitution of the Holy Roman Empire was destroyed by the acceptance
of the principle of religious neutrality, the Popes felt that their
interference even indirectly in temporal matters, however justifiable
it might be in itself, could produce no good results. Hence apart
from their action as temporal sovereigns of the Papal States, a
position that obliged the Popes to take part in political affairs, the
whole tendency was to confine themselves strictly to spiritual matters,
and to preserve harmony if possible between Church and State. This
policy did not, however, satisfy the selfish designs of rulers, who
had determined to crush all representative institutions and to assert
for themselves complete and unlimited authority. Catholic rulers,
jealous of the increased powers secured by Protestant princes through
the exercise of supreme ecclesiastical jurisdiction, determined to
assert for themselves a somewhat similar authority over the Catholic
Church in their own territories. It was no longer the supposed
inroads of the Church upon the domain of the State but the attacks of
the State upon the rights of the Church, that were likely to disturb
the good relations between Catholic princes and the Pope. These
rulers demanded an overwhelming voice in all ecclesiastical
appointments; they insisted upon exercising the "Royal Placet" upon
papal documents and episcopal pronouncements; they would tolerate no
longer the privileges and exemptions admitted by their predecessors in
favour of clerics or of ecclesiastical property; they claimed the right
of dictating to the cardinals who should be Pope and of dictating to
the Pope who should be cardinals; of controlling education in their
own dominions; of determining the laws and rules concerning marriages
and matrimonial dispensations, and of fixing the constitutions of those
religious orders the existence of which they were willing to tolerate.
Unfortunately in their designs for transferring ecclesiastical
jurisdiction from the Popes to the crown the princes were favoured by
many of the bishops, who were annoyed at the continual interference of
Rome and who failed to realise that the king was a much greater danger
to their independence than the Pope; by a large body of clerics and
laymen, who looked to the civil authority for promotion; by the
Jansenists who detested Rome, because Rome had barred the way
against the speculative and practical religious revolution which they
contemplated; by the philosophers and rationalists, many of whom,
though enemies of absolute rule, did not fail to recognise that
disputes between Church and State, leading necessarily to a weakening
of Church authority, meant the weakening of dogmatic Christianity;
and by liberal-minded Catholics of the "Aufklarung" school, who
thought that every blow dealt at Rome meant a blow struck for the
policy of modernising the discipline, government, and faith of the
Church. The eighteenth century was a period of transition from the
politico- religious views of the Middle Ages to those of modern
times. It was a period of conflict between two ideas of the relations
that should exist between Church and State. The Popes were called
upon to defend not indeed their right to interfere in temporal matters,
for of that there was no question, but their right to exercise control
in purely spiritual affairs. It is necessary to bear this in mind if
one wishes to appreciate the policy of those, upon whom was placed the
terrible responsibility of governing the Church during the one hundred
and fifty years that elapsed between the Peace of Westphalia and the
outbreak of the French Revolution.
In the conclave that followed the death of Innocent X, Cardinal
Chigi, who had been nuncio at Cologne, envoy-extraordinary of the
Holy See during the negotiations that ended in the Peace of
Westphalia, and afterwards Secretary of State, was elected, and
took the title of Alexander VII[200] (1655-67). At
first the people were rejoiced because the new Pope had shown himself
so determined an opponent of that nepotism, which had dimmed the glory
of so many of his predecessors, but at the request of the foreign
ambassadors and with the approval of the cardinals he changed his policy
after some time, brought some of his relatives to Rome, and allowed
them too much influence. His election had been opposed by Cardinal
Mazarin in the name of France, and throughout his reign he was doomed
to suffer severely from the unfriendly and high-handed action of Louis
XIV, who despatched an army to the Papal States to revenge an
insult to his ambassador, the Duc de Crequi, and forced the Pope to
sign the disgraceful Peace of Pisa (1664). Alexander VII
condemned the Jansenistic distinction between law and fact by the
Bull, "Ad Sanctam Petri Sedem" (1665), to enforce which
he drew up a formulary of faith to be signed by the French clergy and
religious. He observed an attitude of neutrality in the disputes
between Spain and Portugal, secured the return of the Jesuits to
Venice, and welcomed to Rome Queen Christina of Sweden, who
abandoned Lutheranism to return to the Catholic Church.
His successor, Cardinal Rospigliosi, formerly nuncio at Madrid and
Secretary of State was proclaimed Pope as Clement IX
(1667-69). He was deeply religious, generous in his
donations to the poor and to hospitals, and uninfluenced by any undue
attachment to his relations. He put an end to the religious disorders
that had reigned in Portugal since 1648, when that country seceded
from Spain to which it had been united since 1580, and proclaimed
the Duke of Braganza king under the title of John IV. Matters had
reached such a crisis that many of the bishoprics in Portugal and the
Portuguese colonies were left vacant. In 1668 after the
conclusion of the Peace of Lisbon the Pope appointed those who had
been nominated to the vacant Sees. Deceived by the false
representations made to him from France, he restored the French
bishops who had adhered publicly to the distinction between law and
fact. He offered generous assistance to Venice more especially in its
defence of Crete against the Turks. During his reign he canonised
Mary Magdalen de Pazzi, and Peter of Alcantara.
On the death of Clement IX the cardinals could not at first agree
upon any candidate, but finally as a compromise they elected, much
against his own will, Cardinal Altieri, then an old man eighty years
of age.[201] He was proclaimed as Clement X (1670-76).
Unable to transact much business himself he left too much in the hands
of others, especially to Cardinal Paoluzzi. He encouraged and
assisted the Poles in their struggles against the Turks, and resisted
the demands of Louis XIV concerning the "Regalia". He
canonised John Cajetan, Philip Benitius, Francis Borgia, Louis
Bertrand, and Rose of Lima.
In the conclave that followed the demise of Clement X Cardinal
Odescalchi, against whom France had exercised the veto on a previous
occasion, was elected and took the name of Innocent XI[202]
(1676- 1689). He was zealous for religion, charitable to
the poor, economic and prudent in the administration of the Papal
States, anxious for an improvement in clerical education, and a
strong opponent of everything that savoured of nepotism. His whole
reign was troubled by the insolent and overbearing demands of Louis
XIV in regard to the "Regalia", the right of asylum, and the
Declaration of the French Clergy (1682), but Innocent XI
maintained a firm attitude in spite of the threats of the king and the
culpable weakness of the French bishops. He encouraged John
Sobieski, King of Poland, to take up arms against the Turks who
had laid siege to Vienna, and contributed generously to help Hungary
to withstand these invaders.
After the short and by no means glorious reign of Alexander VIII
(Cardinal Ottoboni, 1689-91), the cardinals were divided
into two parties, the French and the Spanish-Austrian. When the
conclave had continued five months without any result they agreed
finally to elect a compromise candidate (Cardinal Pignatelli) who
took the name of Innocent XII (1691-1700). In every
respect he showed himself worthy of his holy office. Nepotism was
condemned in the Bull "Romanum Decet Pontificum", better
arrangements were made for the administration of justice throughout the
Papal States; the disputes with Louis XIV regarding the
Declaration of the French Clergy were settled when the bishops who
signed these articles expressed their regret for their conduct
(1693); and several propositions taken from the "Maximes" of
Fenelon were condemned. The Pope was involved in a serious dispute
with the Emperor Leopold I concerning the right of asylum attached
to the imperial embassy in Rome, and the aggressive policy of
Martinitz, the imperial ambassador. As a result of this quarrel the
Pope, without consulting Charles II of Spain who had no heirs,
favoured the pretensions of Philip Duke of Anjou (Philip V) to
the throne of Spain in preference to the Emperor's son the Archduke
Charles.
In the conclave that assembled after the death of Innocent XII
the majority of the cardinals favoured Cardinal Mariscotti, but, as
his election was vetoed by France, they concentrated their votes on
Cardinal Albani. For three days he refused to accept the onerous
office, but at last he gave way to the earnest entreaties of the
cardinals, and allowed himself to be proclaimed as Clement
XI[203] (1700-21). His election was acclaimed in Rome,
in Italy, and throughout the Catholic world. He was a man of great
sanctity of life, devoted to prayer and labour, who set an example to
others by preaching and hearing confessions regularly in St.
Peter's. While he was Pope there was no danger of nepotism at the
papal court, and no prospect for unworthy or greedy officials in the
Papal States. During his entire reign he was involved in disputes
with the Catholic powers. The death of Charles II of Spain led
to a conflict between Louis XIV, who claimed the crown for his
grandson Philip of Anjou (Philip V), and the Emperor Leopold
I, who supported the cause of his son, the Archduke, Charles
III. Clement XI endeavoured at first to maintain an attitude of
neutrality, but as Philip had been crowned and had established himself
apparently on the throne of Spain the Pope was obliged to acknowledge
him. This action gave great offence to Leopold I and to his
successor, Joseph I, who retaliated by interfering in
ecclesiastical affairs and by despatching an army against the Papal
States. Clement XI, abandoned by Louis XIV and by Philip
V was obliged to come to terms with the Emperor, and to acknowledge
Charles III as king of Spain. Immediately Louis XIV and
Philip V were up in arms against the Pope. The nuncio was
dismissed from Madrid and relations between Spain and Rome were
interrupted for a long period; the papal representatives were excluded
from the negotiations preceding the Peace of Utrecht (1713);
and feudal territories of the Holy See were disposed of without
consulting the wishes of the Pope, Sicily being handed over to
Victor Amadeus of Savoy (1675-1713) with whom Clement
XI was then in serious conflict.
To put an end to difficulties with the foreign bishops, who exercised
jurisdiction in portion of his territory, the Duke of Savoy had
demanded full rights of nomination to episcopal Sees. When this
demand was refused he recalled his ambassador from Rome (1701),
and took upon himself the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs. He
appointed an administrator to take charge of the revenues of vacant
Sees, enforced the "Royal Placet" on episcopal and papal
documents, and forbade the publication of Roman censures
(1710). A partial agreement was arrived at when the royal
administrator consented to accept his appointment from the Pope, but
the transference of Sicily to the Duke of Savoy led to a new and more
serious quarrel. The latter attempted to revive the privileges known
as the Sicilian Monarchy, accorded formerly to the ruler of Sicily.
The Pope refused to recognise these claims, and as the king remained
stubborn nothing was left but to place the island under interdict. To
this the king replied by expelling those priests who observed the
interdict. This state of affairs lasted until Sicily passed into the
hands of the King of Spain (1718).
The Turks were active once more and threatened Europe by land and
sea. Clement XI sent generous supplies to Venice to equip its
fleet, encouraged Stanislaus Augustus of Poland who had joined the
Catholic Church, granted tithes upon ecclesiastical property to help
him in the struggle, and allowed Philip V of Spain portion of the
revenues derived from the benefices in Spain and in the
Spanish-American colonies, on condition that the Spanish fleet
should be sent into the Mediterranean to take part in the war against
Turkey. The victories of Prince Eugene (1716-18) dealt a
severe blow to the power of the Sultan, but the Spanish fleet instead
of assisting the Christian forces was used for the capture of Sardinia
from the Emperor. As evidence of the difficult position of Clement
XI in face of the powers of Europe it is sufficient to point to the
fact that at one time or another during his reign, his nuncios were
driven from Vienna, Turin, Madrid, and Naples.
The conclave that followed was, as might be expected, a stormy one;
but in the end Cardinal Conti, who had been nuncio in Lucerne and
Lisbon, was elected and took as his title Innocent XIII
(1721-24). He granted the kingdom of Naples to the
Emperor, who in turn without consulting the Pope bestowed the papal
fiefs of Parma and Piacenza on Prince Charles of France. Peace
was restored between the Holy See and Spain (1723), and
Innocent XIII, yielding very unwillingly to the importunate
demands of France, conferred a cardinal's hat on Dubois, the prime
minister.
His successor was Benedict XIII (1724-30). Cardinal
Orsini, as he was known before his election, belonged to the
Dominican Order, and at the time of the conclave held the
Archbishopric of Benevento. As archbishop he was most zealous in the
administration of his diocese, and as Pope he followed the same strict
simple life to which he had been accustomed when a Dominican friar.
He made peace with the Emperor by granting him practically all the
rights contained in the Sicilian Monarchy, reserving to the Holy
See only the final decision of important cases (1728), and with
the King of Savoy by acknowledging his title over Sardinia and by
granting him the right of episcopal nomination in the island. With the
demand of King John of Portugal, namely, that Portugal should
enjoy the privilege of presenting candidates for appointment to the
college of cardinals, Benedict XIII refused to comply, and as a
consequence the Portuguese ambassador was recalled from Rome and
communications with the Holy See were interrupted. The extension of
the feast of Gregory VII (Hildebrand) to the whole Church gave
great offence to many rulers both Catholic and Protestant, because
such a step was interpreted as a direct challenge to the new theories of
secular intervention in ecclesiastical affairs. Benedict XIII
was a saintly ruler, whose only misfortune was that he relied too much
on unworthy councillors like Cardinal Coscia and Cardinal Lercari,
who deceived him in their negotiations with the governments of Europe
and in the administration of the Papal States. A rebellion against
these men broke out in Rome when the news of the Pope's death became
public. Cardinal Coscia was deprived of his dignity and imprisoned,
while many of his associates and subordinates were punished no less
severely.
Cardinal Corsini who succeeded as Clement XII
(1730-1740) was faced with a very difficult situation in
Rome and in the Papal States. The treasury was empty, the finances
were in disorder, and the discontent was general. The Pope, though
very old, delicate, and almost completely blind, showed wonderful
energy and administrative ability. The financial affairs of the
government were placed upon a proper footing. Instead of a deficit
there was soon a surplus, which was expended in beautifying the city,
in opening up the port of Ancona, and in the drainage and reclamation
of the marshes. Like his predecessors, Clement XII had much to
suffer from the Catholic rulers of Europe. He was engaged in a
quarrel with the King of Savoy because he tried to limit the
privileges that had been conceded to this sovereign by his predecessor.
Philip V of Spain demanded that the Pope should confer a
cardinal's hat together with the Archbishoprics of Seville and
Toledo on his son, then only nine years of age. The Pope
endeavoured to satisfy the king by granting the temporal administration
of Toledo until the boy should reach the canonical age for the
reception of Orders (1735), but owing to an attack made upon the
Spanish ambassador in Rome during a popular commotion the courts of
Naples and Madrid dismissed the papal ambassador and broke off
relations with the Holy See. Peace, however, was restored with
Spain in 1737, and with Naples in the following year. Clement
XII condemned the Freemasons (1738). He canonised Vincent
de Paul, John Francis Regis, and Juliana Falconieri.
The conclave that followed lasted six months before any of the
candidates could secure the required majority. At last Cardinal
Lambertini was elected and proclaimed under the title of Benedict
XIV[204] (1740-58). In many particulars, but more
especially as a scholar and a writer, he may be regarded as one of the
greatest Popes of modern times. He was born in 1675, was
educated at Rome and Bologna, and even as a very young man he was
looked upon as a leading authority on canon law and theology. He rose
steadily from position to position in Rome till at last he found
himself cardinal and Archbishop of Bologna. As archbishop he was
most successful in the discharge of all the duties that appertained to
his office. He held diocesan synods regularly, visited the most
distant parishes of his diocese, superintended the education of his
clerical students for whom he drew up a new plan of studies, and above
all he strove to maintain most friendly relations with both priests and
people. But notwithstanding his cares of office he found time to
continue his studies, and to prepare learned volumes on Canon Law,
Theology, and History, that placed him amongst the leading scholars
of his time.
Nor did he change his policy or his course of life after his election
to the papal throne. Benedict XIV was convinced that a better
training would help to strengthen the influence of the clergy, and
would enable them to combat more successfully the rising spirit of
unbelief. Hence he was anxious to introduce into the colleges more
modern educational methods. He founded four academies, one for
Christian Archaeology, one for Canon Law, one for Church
History, and one for the special study of the history of the
Councils. He gave every encouragement to priests who wished to devote
themselves to literary pursuits, and in his own person he showed how
much could be done in this direction without any neglect of duty. His
instructions and encyclicals were learned treatises, in which no aspect
of the subject he handled was neglected. His decrees on marriage,
especially on mixed marriages ("Magnae Nobis admirationis",
1748), on Penance, and on the Oriental Rites were of vital
importance. Both before and after his elevation to the papacy he
published many learned works, the most important of which were the
"Institutiones Ecclesiasticae", "De Synodo Diocesana", "De
Servorum Dei Beatificatione et de Beatorum canonizatione",
"Thesaurus Resolutionum Sacrae Congregationis Concilii", and the
"Casus Conscientiae".
In his administration of the Papal States Benedict XIV was no
less successful. The enormous expenses incurred by his predecessor had
depleted the papal treasury, but the schemes of retrenchment enforced
by Benedict XIV produced such good results that in a few years
money was available for the development of agriculture, industries,
and commerce. With the civil rulers of Europe he had a difficult part
to play. Convinced that disputes between the civil and ecclesiastical
authority resulted only in promoting the schemes of the enemies of
religion, he was determined to go to the very limits of concession for
the sake of peace and harmony. For a time at least he was able to
secure a partial reconciliation, and had his overtures been met in the
proper spirit a working arrangement might have been established, that
would have enabled both powers to combine against the forces at work for
the overthrow of Church and State.
The title of King of Prussia assumed by the Elector of Brandenburg
was recognised by the Pope; peace was made with Portugal by granting
to the crown rights of patronage over bishoprics and abbeys
(1740), and to set the seal on this reconciliation the title of
"Rex Fidelissimus" was bestowed on the King of Portugal. With
the court of Turin the Pope had still greater difficulties, but an
agreement was arrived at, whereby the king was to have the right of
nomination to ecclesiastical benefices; the foreign bishops having
jurisdiction in the territory of Savoy were to appoint vicars-general
for the administration of these portions of their dioceses, and the
administrator of vacant benefices appointed by the king was to act as
the deputy of the Pope (1741). With Spain a formal concordat
was concluded in 1753. The dispute in Naples regarding the
Sicilian Monarchy was settled by the appointment of a mixed tribunal
composed of laymen and clerics, presided over by a cleric for the
settlement of ecclesiastical affairs. The Pope's decision that only
those who refused publicly to accept the papal condemnation of
Jansenism were to be excluded from the sacraments helped to ease
considerably the situation in France. He condemned the Freemasons
(1751), and reduced the number of holidays for Spain in 1742
and for Austria, Tuscany, and Naples in 1748.
His successor Clement XIII (1758-69) found himself in a
peculiarly unhappy position. Despite the friendly policy adopted by
Benedict XIV towards the civil rulers, or, as some would say,
as a result of the concessions that he made, their demands became still
more exorbitant. The Rationalists, liberal Catholics,
Jansenists, and Freemasons united their forces for a grand attack
upon the Society of Jesus, the suppression of which they were
determined to secure. Already rumblings of the storm had been heard
before the death of Benedict XIV. His successor, who had the
highest admiration for the Jesuits, stood manfully by the Society,
and refused to yield to the threats of the Bourbon rulers thirsting for
its destruction. His sudden death was attributed not without good
reason to the ultimatum, demanding the immediate suppression of the
Jesuits, addressed to him by the ambassadors of France, Spain, and
Naples.
In the conclave the cardinals were divided into two parties, the
"Zelanti" who stood for resistance to the demands of the civil
rulers, and the moderate men who supported the policy of conciliation.
The representatives of France, Spain, Portugal, and Naples,
left no stone unturned to prevent the election of a "Zelanti", and
the veto was used with such effect that the choice of the cardinals was
at last limited to only three or four. Threats were made that, if a
candidate was elected against the wishes of the Bourbons, Rome might
be occupied by foreign troops, and obedience might be refused to the
new Pope. In the end a Franciscan friar, Cardinal Ganganelli,
who was not an extreme partisan of either party among the cardinals,
received the required majority of votes, and was proclaimed as Clement
XIV (1769-74). The new Pope was not unfriendly to the
Jesuits, nor had he any evidence that could induce him to reverse the
very favourable judgment delivered in their favour by his immediate
predecessor. He endeavoured to avert the storm by making generous
concessions to the Bourbons and to Portugal, by adopting an
unfriendly attitude towards the Society, and by offering to effect
serious changes in its constitution. But these half-way measures
failed to put an end to the agitation, and at last Clement XIV
found himself obliged to make his choice between suppression and
schism. In the circumstances he thought it best for the sake of peace
to sacrifice the Society (1773) but he was soon to realise that
peace could not be procured even by such a sacrifice. His weakness led
only to more intolerable demands from France, Spain and Naples.
The cardinals assembled in conclave after his death found it difficult
to agree upon any candidate, but finally after a conclave lasting more
than four months they elected Cardinal Braschi, who took the title of
Pius VI[205] (1775-99). The new Pope was a zealous
ecclesiastic, anxious to promote a policy of conciliation, but
immovable as a rock when there was a question of the essential rights of
the Church. He withstood manfully the Febronian policy of Joseph
II and of the prince-bishops of Germany, and condemned the
decrees of the Synod of Pistoia (1794). He endeavoured to
maintain friendly relations with Portugal, Spain, Naples, and
Sardinia, though the old policy of state supremacy was still the
guiding principle of the rulers and politicians. The storm that had
been gathering for years broke over Europe during the latter years of
his reign; the Bourbon throne in France was overturned, and no man
could foretell when a similar fate awaited the other royal families of
Europe. Pius VI, though not unwilling to recognise the new
order, was stern in his refusal to permit the constitution of the
Church to be changed. For this reason his capital was occupied; his
cardinals were dispersed, and he himself was brought as a prisoner to
Valence, where he died in exile (1799). The enemies of
religion could not conceal their delight. They declared triumphantly
that with him the long line of Peter had ceased to exist, but the
conclave at Venice and the election of Pius VII (1800) soon
showed the world that though kingdoms and dynasties might disappear the
Papacy still survived, as Christ had foretold it should survive.
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