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Whatever hopes there might have been of restoring unity to the
Christian world during the early years of the Reformation movement,
the prospects of a reunion became more and more remote according as the
practical results of the principle of private judgment made themselves
felt. It was no longer with Luther, or Calvin, or Zwingli that
Catholic theologians were called upon to negotiate, nor was it
sufficient for them to concentrate their attention upon the refutation
of the "Confessio Augustana" or the "Confessio Tetrapolitana".
The leading followers of the early Reformers found themselves
justified in questioning the teaching of their masters, for reasons
exactly similar to those that had been alleged by their masters in
defence of their attack on the Catholic Church. The principle of
religious authority having been rejected, individuals felt free to
frame their own standard of orthodoxy, and were it not for the civil
rulers, who interfered to preserve their states from the temporal
dangers of religious anarchy, and to supply by their own power some
organisation to take the place of the Catholic hierarchy, Calvinism
and Lutheranism would have assumed almost as many forms as there were
individuals who professed to accept these religious systems. As it
was, despite the religious formularies, drawn up for the most part at
the instigation and on the advice of the civil rulers, it proved
impossible for man to replace the old bulwarks established by Christ to
safeguard the deposit of faith. As a consequence new sects made their
appearance in every country that accepted the reformed doctrine.
In France some attempts were made by Cardinal Richelieu to bring
about a reunion between the Catholics and the Calvinists. In taking
these steps he was influenced more by considerations of state than by
zeal for the welfare of the Church, but the gulf separating the two
parties was too wide to be bridged over even by French patriotism. In
Poland, where unity was particularly required and where the disastrous
consequences of religious strife were only too apparent, Ladislaus
V determined to summon a conference at Thorn in 1645 to discuss
the religious differences, but though it was attended by
representatives from several states of Germany it produced no good
results.
In Germany the work, that had proved too great for the theologians,
was undertaken by the princes in 1644, with no better results.
Later on, at the instigation of the Emperor, Christopher Royas de
Spinola, an Austrian bishop, spent the last twenty years of his life
(1675- 1695) in a vain effort to put an end to the religious
dispute. Heedless of repeated rebuffs, he passed from court to court
in Germany till at last at Hanover he saw some prospect of success.
Duke Ernest August assembled a conference of Lutheran theologians
(1679), the principal of whom was Molanus, a Protestant abbot
of Loccum. The Lutheran theologians were willing to agree that all
Christians should return immediately to their obedience to the Pope,
on condition, however, that the decrees of the Council of Trent
should be suspended, and that a new General Council composed of
representatives of all parties should be assembled to discuss the
principal points in dispute. On his side Royas was inclined to yield
a good deal in regard to clerical celibacy and the authority of secular
princes in ecclesiastical affairs. Innocent XI, while not
approving of what had been done, praised the bishop for the efforts he
had made to bring about a reunion.
Leibniz, the librarian and archivist of the Duke of Brunswick,
having taken already some part in the work of bringing about a
reconciliation, entered into a correspondence with Bossuet, the
Bishop of Meaux. He favoured a compromise on the basis of acceptance
of the beliefs of the first five centuries, and published his
"Systema Theologicum" as a means of bringing the Catholic
standpoint before the minds of his co-religionists. Bossuet and the
French historian Pellisson reciprocated his efforts, but the schemes
of Louis XIV and the hopes of the English succession entertained
by the House of Brunswick out an end to all chances of success.
From the beginning, though Luther and Zwingli were at one in their
opposition to Rome, they were unable to agree upon a common religious
platform. The Sacramentarian controversy, confined at first to
Luther and Carlstadt, grew more embittered after Zwingli had
espoused openly the side of the latter. Several German princes having
embraced the views of Zwingli, it was felt necessary to preserve some
kind of unity amongst the Reformers, especially in view of the
threatening attitude assumed by Charles V. A conference was called
at Marburg (1529), at which Luther, Melanchthon, Osiander,
and Agricola agreed to meet Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Butzer, and
the other Swiss leaders. The conference failed to arrive at a
satisfactory agreement, but in 1536 the Concord of Wittenberg was
concluded, whereby it was hoped that peace might be restored by the
adoption of a very ambiguous formula. Luther, however, refused to
allow himself to be bound by the agreement, and the controversy went on
as violently as before.
In the meantime Calvin had undertaken to preach doctrines on the
Eucharist entirely different from those put forward by either Zwingli
or Luther, with the result that Zurich found itself in conflict with
Geneva as it had found itself previously in conflict with Wittenberg.
To restore some semblance of unity among the Swiss Reformers
Bullinger, the recognised head of the Zurich party, entered into
communication with Calvin, and a doctrinal agreement was arrived at
known as the "Consensus Tigurinus" (The Zurich Concord) in
1549. Later on this was confirmed by the "Confessio Helvetica"
(1564).
After the death of Luther in 1545 Melanchthon became the
acknowledged head of the Lutheran party. On many questions he was
inclined to disagree with the doctrine of his master. His teaching in
regard to the Eucharist began to approximate more closely to the views
of Calvin, so that the Impanation and Companation theories of
Luther lost favour in Germany. The Philippists or
Crypto-Calvinists gained ground rapidly in the country, with the
result that the German Protestants were split up into hostile
sections. A conference was held at Naumburg in 1561, but it
broke up without having done anything to restore religious unity. At
last in 1576 the Elector August of Saxony summoned an assembly of
theologians to meet at Torgau, for the discussion of the differences
that had arisen between the orthodox followers of Luther and the
Crypto-Calvinists or followers of Melanchthon. Jacob Andrea,
chancellor of the University of Tubingen, was the life and soul of
the reunion movement. Taking the plan of agreement that had been
formulated by him as a basis for discussion the conference drew up the
"Book of Torgau", copies of which were despatched to the Lutheran
princes and theologians for an expression of their opinion. When this
had been received the "Book of Torgau" was revised (1577) and
a Formula of Concord ("Formula Concordiae") was compiled,
embodying the Confession of Augsburg, Melanchthon's Apology for
this Confession, the Articles of Schmalkald and the two Catechisms
issued by Luther (1577). But as there was no authority to
enforce this Formula several of the states refused to accept it.
In Saxony under Christian I (1586-91) the Philippists in
favour at court triumphed over their adversaries, but on the death of
Christian the orthodox Lutherans secured the upper hand, and
Nicholas Crell, the prime minister and chancellor of Saxony during
the previous reign, was thrown into prison, and later on he was put to
death (1601). Calvinism continued to make steady progress in
Germany. It was introduced into the Palatinate during the reign of
Frederick III (1583), and though suppressed by his son and
successor, it gained the upper hand. Similarly in Hesse-Cassel,
in Lippe, Brandenburg, and Anhalt, it gained many new adherents.
All attempts at peace amongst the warring sects having failed,
Calvinism was recognised formally at the Peace of Westphalia
(1648).
Violent controversies broke out among the Lutheran party in Germany
on many other matters besides the Eucharist. One of the early
followers of Luther named Agricola,[186] afterwards a professor of
Wittenberg (1539), in his efforts to emphasise the teaching of
his master on good works proclaimed that the spirit of fear so
characteristic of the Old Testament had given way to the mildness and
love of the New, and that, therefore, Christians who had received
justification were no longer under the obligations of the law. This is
what was known as "Antinomism", a form of error not unknown amongst
the early Gnostics and amongst some of the heretical sects of the
Middle Ages. Agricola was assailed violently by Luther
(1538-40), fled to Berlin (1540), and returned at a
later period to make his submission, but Luther refused all his
attempts at reconciliation. Melanchthon, however, adopted a more
friendly attitude. The controversy continued for years, and
"Antinomism" of a much more exaggerated form spread into other
countries, particularly into England, where Parliament was obliged
to legislate against its supporters during the reign of Charles I.
Closely associated with the Antinomist controversy was another known
as the "Osiandrist",[187] from the name of one of its principal
participants, Andrew Osiander. The latter, a professor of Hebrew
at Nurnberg, perceiving the dangerous results of Luther's teaching
on good works sought to introduce some modifications that would obviate
the danger involved in the latter's apparent contempt for good works.
For this reason he condemned the general absolution that had been
introduced to replace auricular confession, and insisted upon the
elevation of the Host as a profession of belief in the doctrine of the
Real Presence. Having become involved in a sharp dispute with his
colleagues at Nurnberg he left the university, and accepted a
professorship at Konigsberg in Prussia (1549), where he was
supported by the ruler Duke Albert. In regard to Justification he
taught that forgiveness of sin and satisfaction should not be confounded
with Justification, that the latter is effected by the indwelling of
God in the person of the justified, that though the human nature of
Christ is a necessary condition for redemption it is by the divine
nature that the indwelling of God in man is effected, and that on
account of this indwelling the holiness of God is imputed to the
creature. This teaching aroused considerable opposition. Osiander
was denounced by Morlin and others as Anti-Christ. Duke Albert
sought the views of leading theologians only to find that as they were
divided themselves they could lay down no certain rules for his
guidance. Osiander died in 1552, but the quarrel continued and
for a time it seemed as if it would lead to rebellion. Finally the
adversaries of Osiander triumphed, when they secured the insertion of
their views in the Prussian "Corpus Doctrinae" (1567) and the
execution of Funk the leading supporter of Osiandrism (1601).
Another professor of Konigsberg at this period, Stancarus,
maintained that Redemption is to be attributed to the human nature
rather than to the divine nature of Christ, but he was expelled from
the university, and denounced on all sides as a Nestorian.
On this question of good works a violent controversy broke out after
the Leipzig "Interim" (1548). Luther had depreciated
entirely the value of good works as a means to salvation. On this
point, however, Melanchthon was willing to make considerable
concessions to the Catholics, as indeed he did in 1535 and
1548, when he admitted that good works were necessary for acquiring
eternal happiness. This view was supported warmly by Major, a
professor at Wittenberg, who was denounced by Amsdorf as an opponent
of Luther's doctrine of Justification (1551). Amsdorf,
Flacius, and others maintained that good works were a hindrance rather
than an aid to salvation, while Major clung tenaciously to the
position that good works were meritorious. "Majorism", as the new
heresy was called, was denounced in the most violent terms because it
involved a return to the doctrine of the Papists. Major was suspended
from his office as preacher (1556) and was obliged to make a
recantation (1558).
The "Adiaphorist" controversy broke out in connexion with the
Leipzig "Interim" (1548). In this attempt at reconciliation
Melanchthon was not unwilling to yield in many points to the Catholic
representatives, and to agree that several of the doctrines and
practices of the Church that had been assailed by Luther were at least
indifferent and might be admitted. For this he was attacked by
Matthias Flacius, surnamed Illyricus[188] on account of the place
of his birth, a professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg since 1544.
The latter protested against the concessions made by Melanchthon,
denounced as impious the union of Christ with Belial, and returned to
Magdeburg, where he was joined by Amsdorf and others who supported
his contention. He was driven from the city and at last died at
Frankfurt in 1575.
The question of man's co-operation in his conversion gave rise to
what was known as the "Synergist" controversy. Luther had laid it
down as a first principle that man contributed nothing to the work of
his own conversion, but though Melanchthon agreed with this view in
the beginning, he was disposed at a later period to attribute some
activity to the human will, at least in the sense that it must struggle
against its own weakness. This view was strengthened and developed by
John Pfeffinger, a professor at Leipzig, who taught publicly the
necessity of man's co-operation (1550), and published a
treatise in defence of this position (1555). Pfeffinger's
doctrine aroused the opposition of Amsdorf, Flacius, and the other
leaders of the orthodox Lutheran party. Leipzig and Wittenberg
joined hands to support the doctrine of co-operation, while the
majority of the professors at Jena took the opposite side. One of the
latter however, Strigel, supported Pfeffinger, and a public
disputation was held at Gotha under the presidency of Duke John
Frederick. The Lutheran party demanded the punishment of Strigel
and his supporters so vigorously that the Duke was obliged to arrest
them, but, annoyed by the attempt of the Lutherans to set up a
religious dictatorship to the detriment of the supremacy of the civil
ruler, he established a consistory composed of lawyers and officials
whose duty it was to superintend the religious teaching in his
territory. The anti-Synergists, having protested against this
measure as an infringement of the rights of the spiritual authority,
were expelled, and Jena entered into line with Wittenberg and
Leipzig for the defence of Synergism. With the change of rulers came
once more a change of doctrine. The princes, alarmed by the violence
of the controversy, assembled a conference at Alternburg in 1568
which lasted four months without arriving at any agreement. On the
accession of the Elector August the leading opponents of the
Synergists, including a large number of the superintendents and
preachers, were deprived of their offices.
By his lectures and teaching at the University of Hemstadt George
Calixt[189] gave rise to a new and prolonged discussion known as the
"Syncretist" controversy. The Duke of Brunswick having refused to
accept the "Formula of Concord", the professors at the university
which he had founded felt themselves much more free in their teaching
than those in other centres of Lutheranism. Calixt denied the
ubiquity of Christ's body and the attribution of divine qualities to
Christ's human nature. Though a strong opponent of several
distinctly Catholic or Calvinist beliefs he saw much that was good in
both, and he longed for a reunion of Christendom on the basis of an
acceptance of the beliefs and practices of the first six centuries. He
was charged with aiming at a confusion of all religions, and in proof
of this charge it was alleged that he rejected the Lutheran teaching on
Original Sin and on man's natural powers of doing good even before
justification, that he defended the meritorious character of good
works, the supremacy of the Pope, at least "de jure
ecclesiastico", and the sacrifice of the Mass (1639). In
1643 a disputation was held, in which Hornejus, a colleague of
Calixt, supported his doctrine especially on the meritoriousness of
good works. The appearance of Calixt at the conference summoned by
the King of Poland in Thorn (1645) to promote a reunion with
Rome, and the friendly attitude which he had adopted towards the
Catholics and the Calvinists helped to increase the suspicions of his
adversaries. Calixt died in 1656, but for years after his death
the spirit of toleration, that he had done so much to foster, was one
of the distinguishing features of the University of Helmstadt. It
was during this controversy that the Branch Theory, namely, that
Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism formed three divisions of
the one true Church, was formulated clearly for the first time.
Amongst the Calvinists the extremely crude doctrine on Predestination
taught by Calvin soon proved too much for the faith of many of his
followers. Several of them, holding fast by Calvin's teaching,
contended that regardless of Original Sin God had created some for
glory and others for damnation, that Christ had died only to save the
elect, and that to these alone is given the grace necessary for
salvation (Supralapsarians). Others, horrified by the cruelty of
such a doctrine, maintained that the decree predestining some to hell
followed the prevision of Original Sin (Infralapsarians). This
view had been put forward by Theodore Koonhort, and had found
considerable support, but it was attacked by the majority of the
Calvinist ministers, and a bitter controversy ensued. The orthodox
party summoned to their assistance Arminius[190] (Hermanzoon), a
distinguished young Calvinist preacher, who had attended the lectures
of Beza in Geneva, but whose strict views were modified considerably
by a sojourn in Italy. Instead of supporting the Supralapsarians,
his sympathies were entirely on the side of the milder doctrine, and
after his appointment to a professorship at Leyden (1603) he
became the recognised head of the Infralapsarians. His chief opponent
was Gomar, also a professor at Leyden, who accused Arminius of
Semi-Pelagianism. Arminius, while repudiating such a charge as
groundless, rejoined by pointing out that according to his adversaries
God was the author of sin. Both appeared before an Assembly of the
States in 1608 to defend their views, and though the majority were
inclined to favour Arminius, silence was imposed upon the two
principals and upon their followers. In the next year Arminius
himself died (1609), but his doctrines were upheld by Episcopius
supported by the learned jurist, Oldenbarneveld, and the Humanist,
Grotius. In replying to the charge of heresy brought against them the
followers of Arminius presented to the States a Remonstrance
embodying their doctrines (1610) and on this account they were
styled Remonstrants. The States adopted a neutral attitude at
first, but, as the Gomarists or anti-Remonstrants violated the
injunction of silence by founding separate communities, the authorities
were inclined not merely to tolerate but to support the Remonstrants.
Maurice, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland, anxious to
strengthen his position by allying himself with the orthodox
Calvinists, began a bitter campaign against the Arminians.
Oldenbarneveld and Grotius were arrested and brought before the synod
of Dordrecht (1617), at which the former was condemned to
death, while Grotius was imprisoned for life though he succeeded in
escaping after two years. Another Synod was held at Dordrecht
(Nov. 1618-April 1619) to which representatives came from
all parts of Holland, the Palatinate, England, and Scotland.
From the beginning the followers of Arminius were admitted only as
accused persons, and were called upon to defend themselves against the
charge of heresy. Against them the authority of Calvin was urged as
if it were infallible. As the Arminians were suspected of republican
principles William of Orange and his supporters were decidedly
hostile. The Remonstrants, despairing of getting an impartial
hearing, left the Synod. The five Articles contained in the
Remonstrance were discussed, and decrees were issued regarding those
portions of Calvin's doctrine that had been called in question. It
was agreed that faith is the pure gift of God to be given by God to
those whom He has predestined by His own mercy and without any
reference to their merits for election; that Christ died only for the
elect; that man's will does not co-operate in the work of his
conversion; and that the elect are exempted from the dominion of sin,
so that although they may be guilty of serious crimes they can never
become enemies of God or forfeit the glory to which they were
predestined. The decrees of the Synod of Dordrecht were received
generally in Holland, Switzerland, France, in the territory of the
Elector of Brandenburg, and in Hesse, but in the other portions of
Calvinist Germany and in the greater part of England they met with
serious opposition.
"Anabaptists".[191]--The belief that baptism could not be
conferred validly on infants who have not arrived at the use of reason
was held by many of the Middle Age sectaries, and was revived at the
time of the Reformation. Its supporters, claiming for themselves the
liberty of interpreting the Scriptures according to their own
judgment, maintained that they had divine sanction for their teaching.
The leaders of the sect in Saxony and Thuringia were Thomas Munzer
and Nicholas Storch. They represented the extreme left of the
Lutheran party maintaining the equality of men and the community of
property. In Zwickau, where the movement originated, violent
disturbances broke out, and the leaders retired to Wittenberg where
they were joined by Carlstadt. It required the presence of Luther
himself to prevent the city from falling completely into their hands.
Owing to the dangerous character of the radical principles defended by
the Anabaptists several princes of Germany joined hands for their
suppression. They were defeated at the battle of Frankenberg
(1525) and Munzer was arrested and put to death. Before his
execution he returned to the Catholic Church.
Despite this defeat the party made considerable progress in West
Germany and in the Netherlands, where the people were so disgusted
with their political and social conditions that they were ready to
listen to semi-religious, semi-social reformers like the
Anabaptists. They took possession of the city of Munster in
Westphalia. The two principal leaders were John of Leyden (a
tailor) and John Matthyas or Matthieson (a baker), the former of
whom was appointed king. The city was besieged and captured in
1535, and the principal Anabaptists were put to death. In
Switzerland the movement made considerable progress. From
Switzerland it spread into southern Germany, but the triumph of the
princes during the Peasants' War destroyed the hopes of the extreme
Anabaptists, and forced the sect to discard most of its fanatical
tendencies. The leader of the more modern Anabaptist sect was Menno
Simonis, a priest who joined the Society in 1535, and after whom
the Anabaptists are called frequently Mennonites.[192] The latter
rejected infant baptism and Luther's doctrine of Justification by
faith alone. They protested against oaths even in courts of law and
capital punishment.
"Schwenkfeldians".[193]--This sect owes its origin to Caspar
von Schwenkfeld (1489-1561), a native of Silesia, who,
though attached to many of the doctrines of Luther, believed that
Luther was inclined to lay too much stress on faith and external
organisation to the exclusion of real religion. He thought that more
attention should be paid to the mystical and devotional element, in
other words to the personal union of the individual soul with God.
According to him, this should be the beginning and end of all
religion, and if it could be accomplished organisation and dogma were
to be treated as of secondary importance. He rejected infant baptism,
regarded the sacraments as mere symbols, denied the Real Presence of
Christ in the Eucharist, and maintained that in the Incarnation the
human nature of Christ was in a sense deified. Schwenkfeld held
several interviews with Luther in the hope of winning him over to his
opinions but without success. Owing to his quarrel with the master,
Schwenkfeld was banished from Strassburg in 1533, and condemned
by a Lutheran assembly at Schmalkald in 1540. His doctrines
found considerable support in Silesia and in the states of several
German princes, though it was only after Schwenkfeld's death that
his followers began to organise themselves into separate communities.
Owing to persecution many of them fled to America where they settled
in Pennsylvania (1634). In 1742 the sect was tolerated in
Prussia.
"Socinianism".[194]--The doctrine of the Blessed Trinity found
many opponents in Latin countries about the time of the Reformation.
Michael Servetus, Gentilis, Campanus, and Blandrata, attacked
the Trinity from different points of view, but by far the most
dangerous adversaries of the doctrine were Laelius Socinus
(1525-1562) and his nephew Faustus Socinus
(1539-1604). The former of these became a member of a
secret society founded at Vicenza (1546) for the discussion and
propagation of anti-Trinitarian views (1546). The principal
members of this body were Gentilis, Blandrata, Alciatus, and
Laelius Socinus, a priest of Siena and a man who stood in close
relationship with some of the leading Lutherans and Calvinists. When
the society at Vicenza was suppressed several of the prominent members
fled to Poland for asylum. Laelius Socinus, though he remained at
Zurich, was looked up to as the guiding spirit of the party till his
death in 1562. His nephew Faustus Socinus then stepped into the
place vacated by his uncle. The anti-Trinitarians in Poland, who
had begun to style themselves Unitarians since 1563, had
established themselves at Racow. In 1579 Faustus Socinus
arrived in Poland, at a time when the anti-Trinitarians were divided
into opposing factions, but in a short while he succeeded in winning
most of them over to his own views. The doctrines of Socinus and of
his principal disciples were explained in the "Catechism of Racow"
(first published in 1605) and in the numerous theological works of
Socinus. In 1638 the Socinians were banished from Poland, and
violent measures were taken against them by most of the Catholic and
Protestant princes of Europe.
Though Socinus professed the greatest respect for the Sacred
Scriptures as the one and only source of all religion, he claimed the
right of free interpretation even to the extent of rejecting anything in
them that surpassed the powers of human understanding. In this respect
he was as much a rationalist as any of the extreme rationalists who
fought against Christianity in the eighteenth century. God, he
maintained, was absolutely simple and therefore there could be no
Trinity; He was infinite, and therefore could not unite Himself
with human nature, as was assumed in the doctrine of the Incarnation;
the Holy Ghost was not a person distinct from the Father, but only
the energy and power of the Father as manifested in the sanctification
of souls. Christ was not God; He was merely the Logos born
miraculously and deputed by God to be a mediator for men. He ascended
into Heaven, where He was in some sense deified and endowed with
supreme dominion over the universe. Hence in opposition to the
Unitarians Socinus maintained that Christ should be worshipped as
God. He died on the cross according to the command of the Father,
but it was by His example of obedience and by His preaching rather
than by the vicarious sacrifice of His life that man's redemption was
effected. The work of redemption which Christ began on earth is
continued in Heaven through His intercession with the Father. From
this notion of the redemption it followed as a logical consequence that
the sacraments could not be regarded as channels of grace or as anything
more than external signs of union with the Christian body. The
Socinian doctrine was condemned by Paul IV[195] (1555)
and by Clement VIII (1603).
"Pietism".[196]--This movement among the Lutherans resembled
closely some of the developments of Mysticism in the Catholic Church
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Its object was to
direct attention to the spiritual and ethical side of religion
regardless of dogma and external organisation. One of its greatest
leaders was Spener,[197] a student at Geneva, and later on a
preacher at Frankfurt. In his endeavours to bring religion to bear on
the daily lives of the people and to awaken in them a sense of their
personal relations to God he founded the "Collegia Pietatis",
private assemblies for the study of the Scriptures, for the discussion
of the means of redemption, and for a general revival of religious
zeal. With the same object in view he wrote the "Pia Desideria"
(1567), which was much prized as a spiritual reading book by the
devout Lutherans of Germany. He emphasised the idea of a universal
priesthood, which he thought had been somewhat neglected by the leaders
of the Lutherans, advocated for those who were destined for the
ministry a training in spiritual life rather than in theological lore,
encouraged good works as the best means of securing eternal bliss,
objected to polemical discussions, and welcomed the establishments of
private societies for the promotion of Christian perfection. About
the same time Franke and Anton undertook a similar work in Leipzig by
founding the "Collegium Philobiblicum" principally for students and
members of the university. This society was suppressed at the
instigation of the Lutheran faculty of theology, and the two founders
of it were dismissed. In a short time Spener was appointed to an
office in Berlin and was received with great favour at the court. By
his influence three of his leading disciples, Franke, Anton, and
Breithaupt were appointed professors in the University of Halle,
which from that time became the leading centre of Pietism in Germany.
Students flocked to Halle from all parts of Germany, from Denmark,
and from Switzerland. An attempt was made to explain away Luther's
teaching on good works, and to insist on the practical as distinct from
the intellectual aspect of Christianity. This relegation of dogma to
a secondary place, and the establishment of private assemblies to
supplant the ecclesiastical organisation and the established liturgy,
led to the development of separatist tendencies and ultimately to the
promotion of dogmatic indifference. It is a noteworthy fact that
Semler was one of the students most sincerely attached to Pietism at
Halle.
"Herrnhuters".[198]--This sect was only a development of the
Moravian Brothers founded in 1457 by one of the Hussite leaders.
It owes its development in the eighteenth century to Count Zinzendorf
(1700-1760), a wealthy nobleman and a Pietist of the school
of Spener. A number of the Moravian or Bohemian Brethren having
appealed to him for a suitable place to establish a settlement, he
offered them portion of his estate at Hutberg (1722). As they
were inclined to quarrel amongst themselves he undertook in person the
work of organisation. He appointed a college of elders to control the
spiritual and temporal affairs of the community, together with a
college of deacons to superintend specially the temporal wants of the
brethren. Like the Pietists generally he paid little attention to
dogmatic differences, allowing the Lutherans, Calvinists, and
Moravians to have their own separate elders. As he was anxious to
undertake missionary work he received Holy Orders, and wished to
preach in Bohemia, but the Austrian government refused to allow him
to continue his work in that province, and even secured his banishment
from Saxony. He went through Europe visiting Holland and England
and established some of his communities in both these countries, after
which he returned to Herrnhut in 1755. During his lifetime
Zinzendorf was looked upon as the head of the whole community, but
after his death it was much more difficult to preserve unity. The
Herrnhuters made some progress in Germany, but their greatest
strength at the present day is to be found in England and the United
States.
"Swedenborgians".[199]--The founder of this sect was Emanuel
Swedenborg (1688-1772), who was born at Stockholm, and
educated at the University of Upsala. He was a very distinguished
student especially in the department of mathematics and physical
science, and after an extended tour through Germany, France,
Holland, and England he returned and settled down in Sweden, where
he was offered and refused a chair at Upsala. From 1734 he began
to turn to the study of philosophy and religion. After 1743, when
he declared that Our Lord had appeared to him in a vision, had taught
him the real spiritual sense of Scripture, and had commanded him to
instruct others, he abandoned his mathematical pursuits and turned
entirely to religion. As Judaism had been supplanted by
Christianity, so too, he maintained, the revelation given by Christ
was to be perfected by that granted to himself. He rejected the
Justification theory of Luther, the Predestination teaching of
Calvin, the doctrines of the Trinity, of Original Sin, and of the
Resurrection of the body. The one God, according to him, took to
Himself human flesh, and the name, Son of God, was applied
properly to the humanity assumed by God the Father, while the Holy
Ghost was but the energy and operation of the God Man. The new
Jerusalem, that was to take the place of the Christian Church, was
to be initiated on the day he completed his great work "Vera
Christiana Religio" (1770). He claimed that the last
Judgment took place in his presence in 1757. During his own life
he did little to organise his followers except by establishing small
societies for the study of the Bible, but after his death the
organisation of the new Jerusalem was pushed on rapidly. From Sweden
the sect spread into England, where the first community was
established in Lancashire in 1787, and into America and
Germany. For a long time the Swedenborgians were persecuted as
heretics in Sweden.
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